Wednesday, June 24, 2009

Graphical Summary of Various Projects& Plans for World Democracy EXPLANATION

A Model of Work Projects for Global Democratization

A Graph and Explanation Presented to the 1st Virtual Congress of the CWC, 2006,
by Kenneth J. KostyĆ³
[ The original graph can be found at http://globaldemo.org/library/1865 ]

Introduction
This table was drafted to provide a visual model of the variety of plans for global democratization. It positively reveals the wide spectrum of potential political action in the field of global democracy, but it negatively reveals how little is being done in some obvious areas.

Explanation
The various plans being analyzed are organized from top to bottom on the left-hand side.
The vertical (y) axis entitled “Degree of Democratic Penetration” represents the “depth” of democracy promoted by the various plans. The plans near the top show moderate democratic intervention at the international level. These are more conventional plans starting with basic promotion of democracy within national governments by international actors. Towards the bottom of the vertical axis, appropriately, are “deeper democracy” plans involving more radical levels of citizen involvement in international politics. The most extreme or “deepest” of which would be direct democratic intervention at the transnational level represent here by legally enforceable international popular referenda.
The horizontal (x) axis entitled “Tools” represents the various types of societal engagement that can be taken to realize the plans. They are organized left to right from the lowest to the highest level of impact or potential for change. This table displays three societal sector tools (although more could be envisioned): academic, public awareness, and finally actual political / legal change.

The idea behind this table is that every idea for global democratization can be translated into actual action in different sectors of society.
We can illustrate this by using the well-known example of a popularly elected United Nations assembly (UNPA). UNPA can be written about and further explained and explored in academic journals. Moving to the right on this table we could imagine articles about UNPA in popular newsweekly magazines and then discusses at community meetings, etc.. Further to the right would be lobbying parliamentarians for an UNPA treaty and then the actual drafting of proposed enacting legislation. This processed would be finished i.e. at the farthest right point on our table when the UNPA is formally and legally established.
We can also use a well-known example to show vertical movement along this table. Let us take the example of a law review article written to show the legal applications of global democracy. This would obviously be an effort in the academic sector near the left of our table. Strauss and Falk have written about democratic reform of the United Nations. The work by Dr. Amersinge in support a world constitution would be “farther down” our graph because it is academic work in support of a more drastic level of democratic penetration at the world level.

Conclusions
This table shows that there is a very wide variety of creative projects in the field of global democratization. It also shows, however, that extremely little is being done in most of these areas. Almost every project is ignoring certain tools and/or is doing too little because there are too few funds or activists.
Our success and effectiveness as global democrats depends exclusively one exactly what steps we are taking in these fields and how effectively activists in the various fields are working together.

Key
P.U. = parliamentary uniton – transnational parliamentary
assemblies composed of legislature selected from various
national legislatures.
Bretton Woods organs - World Bank, International Monetary Fund – also now the
World Trade Organization (WTO)

WF = World Federalist
NIGD - Finnish NGO
WPE - German NGO
VWG - Canadian NGO
Yellow highlight = cautionary remarks – even though there is work being down in this area there are still substantial problems to overcome.

Red text = no organized steps being taken in this area
Borders of the cells indicate how effectively activists within the fields are cooperating with each other.

Yellow = too little cooperation and Red = nearly no cooperation.

Friday, May 22, 2009

Student Government (original screenply)

FADE in: ESTABLISHING SHOT - NEW YORK CITY STREET - DAY

"Based on actual historical events" appears on screen over a contemporary residential city street. ANDRES struts into view. He seems cocky, and is dressed in stylish clothing. He turns and walks into the doorway of a town house. RAP MUSIC is playing.

INT./EXT. APARTMENT BUILDING STAIRCASE - DAY

Andres walks through the door and closes it. His pace slows considerably as he walks upstairs.

INT. OLDER JESUS'S APARTMENT - DAY

OLDER JESUS (pronounced Hay-Suse) hears the DOORBELL. He is in his late seventies. He gets up slowly, but with dignity. His dress and the apartment's decor are proper, tasteful, and simple. He opens the door.

OLDER JESUS
Hello, Andres.

Older Jesus seems happy and surprised to see Andres, but he acts reserved. He turns and walks back into the living room. Andres closes the door, and follows Older Jesus into the living room. Andres is acting agitated, and does not sit. He speaks in an urban drawl.

ANDRES
Hey, Pop.

OLDER JESUS
Shouldn't you be in class?

ANDRES
No class today.

OLDER JESUS
I'm not stupid, Andres.
(pauses briefly)
You used to be such a good boy.

ANDRES
Don't start busting me. I'm
just here to visit.

OLDER JESUS
Why?

ANDRES
(handing him some folded
money)
I brought you a present.

OLDER JESUS
I do not need anything, especially
your ill-gotten money.

ANDRES
Uh?

OLDER JESUS
I did the best I could after your
parents died.

ANDRES
Take it.

OLDER JESUS
Did you really think it would
be that easy?
(pauses briefly)
Maybe I was guilty of the same
thing.

ANDRES
Uh?

OLDER JESUS
Hopefully you will learn that
there are many things you cannot
buy with money. Fortunately,
I am still one of them.

Andres leaves the money, turns and closes the door behind him as he leaves. Older Jesus walks over to a record player, and turns on a SALSA that has a beat and revolutionary theme similar to the rap song. He walks into the kitchen and starts to make some tea. He gets weak. All of the SOUND DIES. He collapses to the ground. The only SOUND is the EXAGGERATED THUD of Older Jesus crashing to the ground. The SOUND DIES again and Older Jesus's hand knocks over the water. The water splashes his face. All the SOUND is DEAD except for the EXAGGERATED noise of SPLASHING. This is followed by the BARELY AUDIBLE SALSA, which continues after fade to black.

EXT. NEW YORK CITY STREET - DAY

The MUSIC has changed to a much LOUDER version of the opening RAP SONG. Andres lights a cigarette and resumes his cocky strut along the city streets. He passes a group of three bums. Andres stops and talks to the stylish blond drug DEALER. Andres arrives at a school, and the MUSIC ABRUPTLY ENDS. He goes into the door.
INT./EXT. SCHOOL HALL - DAY

Andres walks slowly into the hall and closes the door.

INT. CLASSROOM - DAY

OLDER PEDRO is lecturing the class. He is dressed in priest's garb, and is in his mid seventies.

OLDER PEDRO
...Several students have joined
me on this trip before, and you
can ask them how fulfilling it
was. Many of you are Hispanic
like myself, and this is a good
way to learn about our culture,
and to serve our people.

Andres enters, and takes the only available seat, which is in the first row. He is slouching and unresponsive.
OLDER PEDRO
(to Andres)
Oh, what a rare treat. Where
were you this time?

ANDRES
Visiting my grandfather.

OLDER PEDRO
Even if that is true it's still
irrelevant. I want to speak with
you after class.
(addressing the class
again)
For those of you who are not Hispanic,
this trip will be a good opportunity
to learn about a different culture.
We all need to live together,
and the more we know about each
other, the easier it will be for
everyone...

The BELL RINGS. Andres hurriedly leaves before anyone else. Older Pedro does not have a chance to catch him.

INT. OLDER PEDRO'S OFFICE - DAY

Older Pedro is speaking into an intercom microphone.

OLDER PEDRO
Please excuse the interruption.
If...

INT. CLASSROOM - DAY

Andres is sitting in the back of another class. He instinctively walks towards the door the instant the announcement starts.

OLDER PEDRO
(continuing)
...Andres Fuente is on the premises,
please have him report to the
principal's office immediately.

Andres closes the door as he leaves.

INT. OLDER PEDRO'S OFFICE - DAY

Older Pedro is sitting impatiently at his desk. He looks at his watch several times. After the final glance, he bursts out of the office, and notices a nervous BOY waiting for him. Older Pedro impatiently addresses the Boy.

OLDER PEDRO
What do you want?

BOY
Nothing, sir. My teacher gave
me this slip for chewing gum,
but I...

Older Pedro interrupts the Boy by grabbing the slip, looking at it for about a second, and then crumbling it as he leaves.

OLDER PEDRO
Forget it.

OFF SCREEN

Older Pedro opens the door and then slams it shut.

BOY
(calling out to the closed
door)
Thank you, Father Pedro. I mean
Father Torre!

INT. SCHOOL BATHROOM - DAY

Cut quickly to Andres exhaling smoke. Older Pedro rushes in, grabs the pipe from Andres and throws it into the toilet. The embers in the pipe fizzle out in the toilet water.

At this moment of extreme tension, the Boy walks into the bathroom, and runs out frightened.

OLDER PEDRO
You don't know how stupid your
excuse was this morning.

ANDRES
(Seemingly stoned)
Uh?

OLDER PEDRO
Your only visit was to a dead
man.

ANDRES
Uh?

OLDER PEDRO
Maybe you were too stoned to notice,
but your grandfather was dead
this morning.

After hearing this, Andres slowly slides downs the wall onto the floor. This is the most visually emotional he has been.

OLDER PEDRO
(continuing)
I was going to make a crack about
you murdering him, but you seemed
shocked.
(sliding near Andres,
his tone softens)
One of the few redeeming qualities
you had left was your love for your grandfather.

Older Pedro pauses. Andres is stunned.

OLDER PEDRO
(continuing)
I called to confirm your story.
I knew there was a problem when
he didn't answer. He always stays
in on Tuesday morning to listen
to the Cuban music program on
the radio.

They both snicker reservedly.

OLDER PEDRO
(continuing)
I went over to check on him.
(pauses thoughtfully and
looks away)
I don't know why I got angry with
you. I don't know what I thought
happened--what you did. Did something
happen?

ANDRES
(Shakes his head no,
and then answers)
I mean he was upset, but he has
been for a while. He didn't have
any reason to live.

OLDER PEDRO
I don't believe you said that.
You know better. He did a decent
job of raising you. He had to
go through that twice. It was
him who was responsible for making
you tough, and then you went and
used it for all of the wrong reasons.

ANDRES
I was better at being tough than
he was.

OLDER PEDRO
You have no idea.

ANDRES
What do you know? You never had
to live with him. What would
anyone tell their priest anyway?
I went and did things--made a
life for myself. He just sat
in his room. He never lived.

OLDER PEDRO
You have absolutely no idea.
You should know we are...were
cousins. I have literally known
Jesus my entire life, but for
some reason it all seem to start--
almost everything in my life seem
to start around the time he went
to college...

CUT TO

EXT. JESUS'S LAWN - DAY

Fade from Older Pedro's face to PEDRO's face. He is at a lawn party with costumes and surroundings that indicate that it is in the early 1930's, and the guests are aristocrats in a tropical nation. JESUS walks on screen. He starts to approach Pedro. They both are elegantly attired and intoxicated.

PULL BACK TO REVEAL

A huge gathering of slightly drunk and formally dressed people, some are wearing elaborate military dress uniforms. There are many servants present. "Havana, Cuba 1933" appears on screen.

PEDRO
(sarcasm to Jesus)
Enjoying yourself, Jesus?

Jesus stares at him with a bitter look.

PEDRO
(continuing)
Pretty soon you will be away from
all this.

JESUS
So. At the University, I will
be dealing with the offspring
of all these disgusting people.

PEDRO
You never had trouble having a
good time.

JESUS
The reason I act this way is because
I do have trouble having a good time.

PEDRO
I'm going to miss you. We are
two of a kind. The only two of
that kind it seems.

JESUS
Yea, I suppose so.
(pauses)
Take care of yourself, Pedro.

PEDRO
(snickering)
I will.

JESUS
You know what I mean. You got
to slow down. Nobody should act
like that at your age. I didn't,
and look how I turned out. Believe
me. You don't want to be any
worse off.

PEDRO
I'll be alright.
(pauses)
Did you hear? President Machado
is at this party.

JESUS
So. I've met him before. He
is usually at the worst parties
not the best.

PEDRO
I know what you mean.

JESUS
I'm going to walk around a little.

He gets up and walks towards the water. He sees and stares at MARIANA who is sneaking through the woods behind the house. She is extremely dark and beautiful, about Jesus's age, not as formally dressed as the other guests, and her hair is a too long for the event. Jesus accidently walks into the water.

CUT TO

INT. LIVING ROOM - NIGHT

There is a college party in progress. Everyone is formally dressed, and there is a great deal of alcohol. Jesus is drunk and slouching in a couch. There are servants present. Jesus stands up and walks away.

EXT. CAMPUS - NIGHT

Jesus stumbles outside, and stares into a wading pond. He sees the reflection of Mariana behind him. He dashes after her, but it is too late.

INT. LIVING ROOM - NIGHT

Jesus stumbles back into the party, and grabs another drink. The other guests appear to be the sons of the guests at the lawn party in the previous scene. He addresses one person specifically, in the general direction of several others and finally to the crowd, all without any response amounting to more than a polite shrug.

JESUS
Does anyone know who that girl
was? Who is she? You've seen
her before?
(stumbling over to a
phone and dialing)
Operator, get the Castillo-Torre's.

INT. PEDRO'S HOUSE - NIGHT

PEDRO'S FATHER gets out of bed to answer the PHONE. He is stern in his responses. Pedro is able to hear the conversation, but cannot be seen by his father. Pedro is fully dressed, and has a bottle in his hand.

PEDRO'S FATHER
Hello.
(waits for response)
Yes, I think Pedro is here, but
I am sure he's sleeping.
(pauses)
Is that you, Jesus?
(pauses)
Is there something wrong? You
don't sound good. Are you calling
from the University?

Pedro's Father looks at the receiver as if he's been disconnected. Pedro turns and rushes out the door, and closes it.

EXT. PEDRO'S LAWN - NIGHT

Once outside Pedro jumps on his bike, which is on the ground near the house.

EXT. ROAD - NIGHT

Pedro passes pools of water. It is extremely dark.

EXT. CAMPUS - NIGHT

He stops at the University campus, and addresses several REVELERS.

PEDRO
Do any of you know Jesus
Castillo-Garcia?

Most look at him strangely and continue walking. Two people slow down, and address him.

REVELER
(smugly)
Yea, I know the name.

PEDRO
Do you have any idea where he
would be right now?

REVELER
(quick and sarcastic)
From what I've heard, he should
be at the watering hole. I mean
it is after nine A.M.

PEDRO
(calling after them)
What is that? Is that a bar or
a house?

Pedro doesn't receive a response. He forgets his bike, lights a cigarette and runs huffing. He walks up to a place that seems to be holding a party. He walks in and closes the door.

INT. LIVING ROOM - NIGHT

Pedro walks into the house where Jesus was attending the college party. It is later and calmer.

PEDRO
Hello, do you know if Jesus
Castillo-Garcia is here?

HOST
Uh...I'm not sure. Is he supposed
to be here?

PEDRO
Uh...
(pauses and tries to
sound convincing)
yes. My name is Pedro
Castillo-Torre
(shakes hands)

HOST
Nice to meet you. Feel free to
look around. May I offer you
something?

PEDRO
Thank you. Actually, I would
like to use your lavatory.

HOST
Yes, of course.

The Host gestures up towards the bathroom, and Pedro dashes in that direction.

INT. BATHROOM - NIGHT

Pedro closes the bathroom door. He turns and looks down. Jesus is passed out in the toilet and is wearing an untucked formal shirt without the collar. His suspenders are hanging down. Pedro sighs, bends down with difficulty, looks in, and then FLUSHES the toilet. He starts to finish the drink, and then throws it into the toilet as he passes somewhat backwards.

PEDRO'S POV

of the ceiling slowly rotating. There is a LOUD sigh from Jesus followed by a long pause.

SLOW PAN OVERHEAD SHOTS

between Jesus and Pedro as they converse. They don't look directly at each other. The conversation is delayed by a pause after every single phrase.

PEDRO
Jesus.

JESUS
Is that you, Pedro?

PEDRO
Yea.

JESUS
What am I doing here?

PEDRO
You are suppose to be studying
at the University, but until three
minutes ago you were stewing in
your own digestive juices.

JESUS
Is that you, Pedro?

PEDRO
Yea.

JESUS
What the hell are you doing here?

PEDRO
I overheard you talking to my
father. I came to rescue you.

JESUS
I was talking to your father?

PEDRO
Yea.

JESUS
What did I do that? I...why did
I do that?
(long pause)
Rescue me from what?

PEDRO
I don't know. I'm in pretty bad
shape myself. It seemed like
the noble thing to do at the time.
I guess I was just looking for
an adventure.

JESUS
You don't know what?

PEDRO
Uh?

JESUS
You don't know why I called your
father or you don't know why I
needed to be rescued?

PEDRO
Both. Let's get out of here.

Jesus closes the door behind them.
INT. LIVING ROOM - NIGHT

The stuffy guests are staring at Jesus and Pedro with disbelief. Pedro has also unbuttoned his shirt, and he has a towel around his neck. Jesus and Pedro try to remain cool while leaving. The door is shown closing, but not opening. The uptight students are stunned.

Jesus comes back, takes a bottle and leaves again. The door closes.

ANGLE ON THE UPTIGHT STUDENTS

Jesus reenters, and walks with forced dignity into the bathroom. He closes the door. Pedro mechanically follows the same routine after a short pause. The stuffy students watch with unbelief.

INT. BATHROOM - NIGHT

Pedro stares at the toilet, FLUSHES it, and goes over to the tub where he finds Jesus. Pedro stumbles over and turns on the shower.

TIGHT ANGLE ON JESUS'S FACE

The visibility is cut by mist.

EXT. POND - DAWN

Direct cut to the mist resulting from the two of them jumping into a pond, coming out naked and drying off and lounging against a tree. Jesus takes a drink from a flask. They both light cigarettes and relax for a moment.

JESUS
I think my reputation at that
school is ruined already.

PEDRO
I wouldn't worry about it.
(unprompted)
God, I just figured out what you
meant in the bathroom. You were
trying to reach me when you called,
not my father.

JESUS
I was drunker than you for a change.
I shouldn't do that anymore.

PEDRO
You just said that fifteen minutes
ago.
(no response)
That bike ride really took it
out of me.
(suddenly)
Oh damn! I forgot my bike.

JESUS
It will be there in the morning.
Anyway, we can afford plenty of
bikes.

PEDRO
That's not the point. I mean,
what else do I forget if I forget
what I was riding?

They both lean up.

PEDRO
(continuing)
It's time for both of us to polish
our acts.

JESUS
Yea, I don't want to get started
on the same road all through university
too.
(pauses)
Speaking of which, shouldn't you
be at school in a few hours?

PEDRO
(standing)
Yea, I guess so.
(pauses)
We could both use a free day in
the city to clear our heads.

JESUS
I guess it couldn't hurt to sign
one more pass.
(standing)
We didn't sleep one bit.

PEDRO
That's good. I never sleep any
more. I've been too excitable.

JESUS
I use to be the same way. Lately
I've been sleeping all the time.
(pauses)
It's good to get back in these
habits. The sun is starting to
come up.

EXT. ROAD - DAWN

Pedro and Jesus approach an earthen road that cuts through the beautiful tropical lush, which is beginning to be bathed in red light. Pedro is only wearing underwear and a shirt.

PULL BACK TO REVEAL JESUS AND PEDRO APPROACHING

REVERSE SHOT

Jesus and Pedro walking down the road. A cheery SALSA starts. The light, MUSIC and distance all build together.

EXT. CITY STREET - DAWN

They approach the city, which is coming awake. MUSIC is slowly replaced by the SOUNDS of a CITY.

JESUS
What a great city!

There is the THUNDERING SOUND of an EXPLOSION.

PEDRO
(extremely shocked)
What the hell was that?

JESUS
I don't know. It probably came
from the docks. We should find
some clothes before we get any
farther into town.

PEDRO
How do we do that exactly?

JESUS
I don't know. There aren't any
stores near here. By the time
anything opens, half the day will
be wasted.
(pauses and looks around)
I would really rather not get
any closer to the docks until
I cover my butt.

PEDRO
I got it.

Pedro approaches a MAN working with what appears to be laundry or disposed clothing. He addresses him cheerfully and sincerely.

PEDRO
(continuing to the Man)
Hello, sir. My friend and I had
a rough night--fell into a sewer
and that sort of thing. What
would you want for some of those
clothes there?

MAN
I don't know. I mean what do
you want? What do you got?

PEDRO
Anything at all, hopefully a pair
of pants for my friend
(searching pockets of
non-existent pants)
Shit. I guess I left my wallet
in my pants somewhere.
(thinking and then handing
the Man his watch)

MAN
Yes, sir. Take what you want.
Take it all.

They go through clothing, and quickly take a piece or two for each of them. They start to walk away towards a side street.

PEDRO
Have a nice day.

MAN
Yes, sir.

They put on clothes that are ridiculously too big for them. Pedro's pants are tied by a rope.

JESUS
I can't believe you gave him your
watch. These clothes don't fit
very well considering we could
have bought a couple of cheap
suits for what you paid for them.

PEDRO
Who wants cheap suits? These
are more fun.

EXT. DOCKS - DAY

Jesus and Pedro are still exploring around. They come across the harbor area, which is active with sailors and small vendors.

JESUS
The next necessities are my treat.
I don't think any proper establishments
are open yet so we'll just get a loaf of bread. Something we can carry
around with us all day. I think
these cufflinks should do.

PEDRO
That's the spirit.

They stop and buy a huge loaf of bread and coffee, and Pedro puts pieces of tropical fruit into his pocket. They sit down on the dock and warm their faces with the steam rising from their cups. SIMON approaches. He is casually dressed in his sailor's clothes.

SIMON
Do you guys want to buy a tooth?

PEDRO
No thanks. I already have some.
(snickers)

SIMON
It probably came from a political
dissident.

JESUS
(placing the tooth up
to his mouth.)
Actually it looks a little too
big. My guess is that it's shark.

They laugh. Pedro addresses Simon.

PEDRO
What do you mean?

SIMON
Most of the bodies we pull out
of the water are political prisoners
who have committed suicide.

JESUS
What do they do jump from prison
all the way into the water?

SIMON
Well the police give them a push
for the last twenty miles or so.

PEDRO
(shocked)
Are you serious?

SIMON
You guys aren't from around here.

JESUS
We're university students.

SIMON
You don't look like it, but you're
acting like it.

JESUS
We had a rough night.

PEDRO
What's your name?

SIMON
Simon De La Fuente. How about
you guys?

JESUS
Jesus Castillo-Garcia.

PEDRO
Pedro Castillo-Torre.

SIMON
You guys related?

JESUS
Yea, cousins

SIMON
(making stabbing motion
with tooth)
You boys take an easy, and make
sure you keep these things out
of your sides.

PEDRO
What was that all about?

JESUS
I don't know. Don't worry about
it.
(pauses)
The steam rising from the cup
is warming my face.
(pauses)
It feels good.

Jesus leans his forehead against the far rim of the cup, and pauses for a contemplative moment. He then leans up, and stretches his neck.

JESUS
(continuing)
You know what? I remembered why
I tried to call you last night.
I think I saw that girl again.

JESUS
(continuing)
I don't know what I was thinking,
but I wanted to ask you about her.
(waits for and does not
receive response)
Do you know her?

PEDRO
(pauses nervously)
Uh, yea.

JESUS
What's her name? How do you know
her?

PEDRO
Uh, Mariana

JESUS
How do you know her?

PEDRO
Uh...her parents are friends of
the family.
(pauses)
Why do you ask?

JESUS
I think it's obvious why I ask.
Anyway, I find it hard to believe
that your parents have friends
like that.

PEDRO
Can we eat?

JESUS
Let's go to our fathers' club.
Wouldn't that be ironic.

PEDRO
Do you have a death wish?

JESUS
As much as you do.

PEDRO
Well fine. Let's go.

JESUS
We are going to need some proper
clothing.

PEDRO
Let's go.

As they start to walk away. They are stopped by the STUDENT VICTIM. He looks and acts as if he is extremely agitated. He addresses Jesus.

STUDENT VICTIM
Jesus! Can I stay with you for
a few days?

Thursday, May 21, 2009

The Medina Constitution

This is a document from Muhammad the Prophet (may Allah bless him and grant him peace), governing relations between the Believers i.e. Muslims of Quraysh and Yathrib and those who followed them and worked hard with them. They form one nation -- Ummah.

The Quraysh Mohajireen will continue to pay blood money, according to their present custom.

In case of war with any body they will redeem their prisoners with kindness and justice common among Believers. (Not according to pre-Islamic nations where the rich and the poor were treated differently).

The Bani Awf will decide the blood money, within themselves, according to their existing custom.

In case of war with anybody all parties other than Muslims will redeem their prisoners with kindness and justice according to practice among Believers and not in accordance with pre-Islamic notions.

The Bani Saeeda, the Bani Harith, the Bani Jusham and the Bani Najjar will be governed on the lines of the above (principles)

The Bani Amr, Bani Awf, Bani Al-Nabeet, and Bani Al-Aws will be governed in the same manner.

Believers will not fail to redeem their prisoners they will pay blood money on their behalf. It will be a common responsibility of the Ummat and not of the family of the prisoners to pay blood money.

A Believer will not make the freedman of another Believer as his ally against the wishes of the other Believers.

The Believers, who fear Allah, will oppose the rebellious elements and those that encourage injustice or sin, or enmity or corruption among Believers.

If anyone is guilty of any such act all the Believers will oppose him even if he be the son of any one of them.

A Believer will not kill another Believer, for the sake of an un-Believer. (i.e. even though the un-Believer is his close relative).

No Believer will help an un-Believer against a Believer.

Protection (when given) in the Name of Allah will be common. The weakest among Believers may give protection (In the Name of Allah) and it will be binding on all Believers.

Believers are all friends to each other to the exclusion of all others.

Those Jews who follow the Believers will be helped and will be treated with equality. (Social, legal and economic equality is promised to all loyal citizens of the State).

No Jew will be wronged for being a Jew.

The enemies of the Jews who follow us will not be helped.

The peace of the Believers (of the State of Madinah) cannot be divided. (it is either peace or war for all. It cannot be that a part of the population is at war with the outsiders and a part is at peace).

No separate peace will be made by anyone in Madinah when Believers are fighting in the Path of Allah.

Conditions of peace and war and the accompanying ease or hardships must be fair and equitable to all citizens alike.

When going out on expeditions a rider must take his fellow member of the Army-share his ride.

The Believers must avenge the blood of one another when fighting in the Path of Allah (This clause was to remind those in front of whom there may be less severe fighting that the cause was common to all. This also meant that although each battle appeared a separate entity it was in fact a part of the War, which affected all Muslims equally).

The Believers (because they fear Allah) are better in showing steadfastness and as a result receive guidance from Allah in this respect. Others must also aspire to come up to the same standard of steadfastness.

No un-Believer will be permitted to take the property of the Quraysh (the enemy) under his protection. Enemy property must be surrendered to the State.

No un-Believer will intervene in favour of a Quraysh, (because the Quraysh having declared war are the enemy).

If any un-believer kills a Believer, without good cause, he shall be killed in return, unless the next of kin are satisfied (as it creates law and order problems and weakens the defence of the State). All Believers shall be against such a wrong-doer. No Believer will be allowed to shelter such a man.

When you differ on anything (regarding this Document) the matter shall be referred to Allah and Muhammad (may Allah bless him and grant him peace).

The Jews will contribute towards the war when fighting alongside the Believers.

The Jews of Bani Awf will be treated as one community with the Believers. The Jews have their religion. This will also apply to their freedmen. The exception will be those who act unjustly and sinfully. By so doing they wrong themselves and their families.

The same applies to Jews of Bani Al-Najjar, Bani Al Harith, Bani Saeeda, Bani Jusham, Bani Al Aws, Thaalba, and the Jaffna, (a clan of the Bani Thaalba) and the Bani Al Shutayba.

Loyalty gives protection against treachery. (loyal people are protected by their friends against treachery. As long as a person remains loyal to the State he is not likely to succumb to the ideas of being treacherous. He protects himself against weakness).

The freedmen of Thaalba will be afforded the same status as Thaalba themselves. This status is for fair dealings and full justice as a right and equal responsibility for military service.

Those in alliance with the Jews will be given the same treatment as the Jews.

No one (no tribe which is party to the Pact) shall go to war except with the permission of Muhammed (may Allah bless him and grant him peace). If any wrong has been done to any person or party it may be avenged.

Any one who kills another without warning (there being no just cause for it) amounts to his slaying himself and his household, unless the killing was done due to a wrong being done to him.

The Jews must bear their own expenses (in War) and the Muslims bear their expenses.

If anyone attacks anyone who is a party to this Pact the other must come to his help.

They (parties to this Pact) must seek mutual advice and consultation.

Loyalty gives protection against treachery. Those who avoid mutual consultation do so because of lack of sincerity and loyalty.

A man will not be made liable for misdeeds of his ally.

Anyone (any individual or party) who is wronged must be helped.

The Jews must pay (for war) with the Muslims. (this clause appears to be for occasions when Jews are not taking part in the war. Clause 37 deals with occasions when they are taking part in war).

Yathrib will be Sanctuary for the people of this Pact.

A stranger (individual) who has been given protection (by anyone party to this Pact) will be treated as his host (who has given him protection) while (he is) doing no harm and is not committing any crime. Those given protection but indulging in anti-state activities will be liable to punishment.

A woman will be given protection only with the consent of her family (Guardian). (a good precaution to avoid inter-tribal conflicts).

In case of any dispute or controversy, which may result in trouble the matter must be referred to Allah and Muhammed (may Allah bless him and grant him peace), The Prophet (may Allah bless him and grant him peace) of Allah will accept anything in this document, which is for (bringing about) piety and goodness.

Quraysh and their allies will not be given protection.

The parties to this Pact are bound to help each other in the event of an attack on Yathrib.

If they (the parties to the Pact other than the Muslims) are called upon to make and maintain peace (within the State) they must do so. If a similar demand (of making and maintaining peace) is made on the Muslims, it must be carried out, except when the Muslims are already engaged in a war in the Path of Allah. (so that no secret ally of the enemy can aid the enemy by calling upon Muslims to end hostilities under this clause).

Everyone (individual) will have his share (of treatment) in accordance with what party he belongs to. Individuals must benefit or suffer for the good or bad deed of the group they belong to. Without such a rule party affiliations and discipline cannot be maintained.

The Jews of al-Aws, including their freedmen, have the same standing, as other parties to the Pact, as long as they are loyal to the Pact. Loyalty is a protection against treachery.

Anyone who acts loyally or otherwise does it for his own good (or loss).

Allah approves this Document.

This document will not (be employed to) protect one who is unjust or commits a crime (against other parties of the Pact).

Whether an individual goes out to fight (in accordance with the terms of this Pact) or remains in his home, he will be safe unless he has committed a crime or is a sinner. (i.e. No one will be punished in his individual capacity for not having gone out to fight in accordance with the terms of this Pact).

Allah is the Protector of the good people and those who fear Allah, and Muhammad (may Allah bless him and grant him peace) is the Messenger of Allah (He guarantees protection for those who are good and fear Allah).

Wednesday, May 6, 2009

The World Democracy Museum Workplan (draft)

A Communications Platform of Global Democracy Resource

1 introduction and SUMMARY

Total Cost for First Year € 45,000.00
Required to Commence € 15,000.00
Amount Requested € 4,500.00 / 13,500.00

Our Mission and Vision

We are dedicated to freedom and democracy, and to communicating effectively about their manifestations, history and future, sources and threats. We are telling the story of freedom to help communities worldwide make real the long cherished dream of self governance.

We focus on political democracy and on the broader concept of community freedom. We believe community freedom to mean groups of people can solve problems most effectively when they assume their rights and develop solutions for themselves, as well as collectively establish the rules by which they can execute those solutions. Community freedom is an ongoing dynamic present throughout human experience; one surviving in brutal dictatorships as well as still developing in long established democracies.

Our Overall Objective

To tell the story of freedom effectively, we are building the world’s first thorough democracy museum. In its full development, we will have created a useful, ongoing, and collaborative (a) museum of democracy; (b) a democratic museum; and (c) a museum for democracy.

a. The World Democracy Museum is a museum in a traditional sense. It is intended to be a thorough electronic portal for all things related to freedom and good governance, a full service, “one stop shop” for democracy related information and resources;
b. We will not leave democracy on shelves. The World Democracy Museum is also a new type of living, community museum (Museum 2.0). It will be interactive: allowing users to add their own materials and descriptions and choose how to contextualize these material in the overall story of democracy as presented in the Museum. This will allow people to tell their own community’s story of freedom from their unique perspective. Different communities worldwide will work together to plant and grow this collaborative museum. The people also will give life to the World Democracy Museum by being directly involved in its governance;
c. The World Democracy Museum is also a new type of activist museum. The organizational home of the Museum is an advocacy organization, the GDR, which is an NGO active in the global democracy movement After the establishment of Museum projects, the World Democracy Museum will participate in the community through other civil society projects.

Why the World Democracy Museum is Needed

Steps and stumbles on the road to freedom are our shared heritage. It is a thrilling narrative, which is being composed and recomposed. The ongoing struggle for popular governance is one of the oldest and most important undertakings in history. It is, therefore, surprising there is no museum focusing on it. There certainly is none focusing on democracy as an integral movement in the world. There is no museum or gallery or academic center focusing on history of democracy or democracy in art. There does not seem ever to have been a thorough touring exhibition on any of these important and fascinating subjects. There is also no exhaustive library, no academic center, nor recurring film festival on freedom and good governance and its history and other aspects. There is no center on freedom as an inspiration for and influence of architecture or film. There is no literary anthology; virtual or otherwise. There is not an exhaustive online library or portal focusing on history of democracy or law of democracy or new developments in democracy.

The story of freedom has something to teach about solutions to current and future problems. Someone wanting to witness the narrative and learn its important lessons would need to go to hundreds of libraries and thousands of webpages. This situation is inconvenient, but worse, it prevents the narrative from living and teaching us effectively. Failure to provide a holistic picture of democracy perpetuates a false implication that democracy is something belonging to any one place or time. It is important to understand there is no overall portal to assemble and present democracy as a philosophy and movement of all times and places, intrinsic to many aspects of social and political life. There is also a need to present good governance as something that flourished in different times and places thus dispelling myths that democracy is “European”.

How the World Democracy Museum is Timely

Democracy as a form of government has spread dramatically over recent decades. There has been a contemporaneous increase in real and perceived threats to democracy (e.g., increased cross border criminality, surveillance technology, voting fraud, mass poverty, etc.). In summary, democracy is a hotter topic than it was in past decades. This has increased the immediacy of needing to learn more about democracy, its workings, and what causes it to fail.

GDR specifically designed the Museum to respond to several important trans-national trends:

a. Proliferation of physical and electronic museums and increase in their perceived
economic importance;
b. Alteration in the culture and functionality of the worldwide web (web 2.0). Users expect or demand interaction. People want to do more than look at content. They want to download and edit it, post their own content, comment and respond to other comments. This information flood has given rise to community portals – an effort to organize all the information on one subject into one website (i.e. sites of different media related by theme versus single medium sites of different themes such as You Tube );
c. Proliferation of the third sector of the economy (civil society and NGOs);
d. Breakdown of various types of organizational forms. Once clear divisions between sectors of society are blurred by public/private partnerships, privatization of municipal functions, NGOs/IGOs assuming government tasks, foundations established by companies, et cetera.

How the World Democracy Museum Meets Needs

We will close the gap between existing needs and trends. Instead of addressing any one issue, we are creating a thorough and dynamic community portal on freedom and democracy; assembling and then disseminating geographically dispersed material. Activities will begin immediately in the form of a grassroots start-up. Rather than wait for large institutional funding and elite endorsements, we will begin with eager partners and donators, free software, and volunteers. We believe the power of this plan and the ideas behind it will attract adequate resources.

Our Internal Governance

The World Democracy Museum is housed in Stichting World Democracy Library, an incorporated Dutch foundation conducting activities as Global Democracy Resource (GDR). The management of the Museum itself will be an exercise in democracy. The Board of Directors will be assembled to represent a cross section of world communities and beliefs. The Board of Directors has plenary legislative authority, and management is delegated to the Coordinator who will represent the Coordination Team (executive authority) on the Board of Directors. All donors to the World Democracy Museum are represented in a proportional amount of membership. Citizens may join the World Democracy Museum as members, and collectively elect representatives on the Board of Directors. Members also will be able to make resolutions directly online in a members’ corner on the webpage. Resolutions are passed at the regular general meetings. This is a bold and useful step forward in Web 2.0, which includes, like Wikipedia, citizen input, but more importantly, the World Democracy Museum includes actual citizen involvement in its governance.

GDR will design and coordinate the Museum. We will work to attract members and organizational partners, who may participate democratically. We are seeking a combination of experience and contacts of mature institutions and motivated focus of smaller, newer organizations.

Our Target Audience

The World Democracy Museum’s primary audience will be democracy activists and organizations, researchers and teachers. The material will also be enjoyable and useful for the general public as a secondary audience. In full development, we will provide useful resources to citizen activists worldwide to be used for democratization efforts.

Our Orientation

There will be introductions to concepts of freedom and democracy; themselves often in conflict and debatable. It is important to note the World Democracy Museum is non-partisan and non-sectarian—perhaps more accurately pan-partisan and pan-sectarian. We will let visitors and members take an active part in the debate, and make their own conclusions.

Summary of Main Activities

The main projects of the World Democracy Museum will be the first exhaustive online library dedicated to a full range of democracy issues. This will be multimedia communications portal allowing visitors to download (and upload) written, audio, and visual material. We will also feature the history of democracy and its future developments projects. This will contain an interactive map and timeline to facilitate learning. There will be an ever expanding number of special projects to outline interesting and useful themes related to democracy (democracy e-xhibits). In all projects, members and visitors will have an opportunity to upload and download material and to comment upon it, etc. as well as purchasing related material in an online store. There will be a dedicated user friendly website (and domains) for the Museum. When possible, all materials will be distributed free of charge.

Our Location

“Decentered” and international with Netherlands coordination.

Organization of Material in the World Democracy Museum

In a short time, the Museum will gather materials covering a wide variety of times and places. For both internal and external purposes, materials will be organized into four general categories:

Theme e.g., e-democracy, direct democracy;
Time e.g., year, exact date, century, historical period;
Place UN members with accommodation for other groups and historical states;
People encyclopaedic summary of important men and women in the story of freedom.

There will also be special categories for the democracy e-xhibits.

Members and users of the World Democracy Museum will be able to categorize the material they upload by indicating (via pull-down menus) the themes and countries, etc. they believe are relevant to the material they are adding to the Museum. The quality of this process will be monitored by the Coordination Team.

An example: a user will be able to interface with the material via a timeline (time category) and map (place category), and to be able to post their own article about people power (theme category) in the Philippines (place category) in the 1980s (time category).

Grouping of material by categories will allow viewers exploring material in one category to easily access information in another. For example, someone viewing material for the above example will have the option to review pop-up entries regarding people power revolutions in Ukraine and democracy movements in the Philippines during the Nineteenth Century as well as an external links to Wikipedia articles on Corazon Aquino (people category). There also will be other external links to well known portals (e.g., YouTube, Gutenberg.org, and Freedom House, etc.).

Timeline and the Activities

This Workplan explains the start-up phase of the World Democracy Museum. It is envisioned that this will take one year. At the end of a year the Museum will not be finished, but the functionality described below will be established and the process of “filling the Museum” will have begun in earnest. The activities are classified as Objectives and Democracy e-xhibits. The Objectives are the basic and necessary functionalities, which will be established at the launching of the Museum. The Democracy e-xhibits below are meant to give a sample of the envisioned special focus projects. The Democracy e-xhibits in this Workplan can be commenced in course of the start-up of the Museum. The actual Democracy e-xhibts pursued will depend on funding and partners.

Potential Competitors and Problems

There are some projects dedicated to democracy in particular areas (e.g. Greece, South Korea, American campaign pins). It is more accurate to view these efforts as potential partners than competitors. None are exploring democracy throughout the world, and none are interactive. The market niche of the World Democracy Museum is unique. The designers of the Museum have intentionally planned an early and inexpensive commencement. This allows many to get involved as quickly, but it also means a similar project could be started elsewhere. The story of popular governance is a long and complex one, and it certainly can support many centers with different focus. We welcome that, and even hope to inspire such competition. There are countless museums dedicated to money or maritime history. An important area like democracy deserves as much if not more attention. The collaborative governance of the World Democracy Museum will allow Members to respond to new needs and variables as they develop.

2 description of PROGRAM OBJECTIVES AND activities

Objective 1 – The World Democracy Bibliography and Library
Develop comprehensive bibliography of democracy related materials and assemble or create digital versions of available materials to be hyperlinked to continuously updated online multimedia (written, audio, visual, etc.) library that can be freely accessed, downloaded, and printed.

Potential Initial Democracy e-xhibits

The Banned Books Project
Special feature assembling / analyzing forbidden political materials throughout the ages;

The Center for World Constitutions
A special feature presenting all constitutions in the world (national, sub-national, supra-national, and past and present) as well as summaries and searchable database broken down by various themes. This feature will allow visitors to rank and rate the various building blocks of constitutions and to reassemble them so as to “create their own constitution”.

Objective 2 – The Art of Democracy Project
Develop an online gallery of art related to freedom and democracy. This will include all media (written, video, music, etc.), and will be organized by the categories above.

Potential Initial Democracy e-xhibit

A House for All the People Project
A special feature focusing on democracy’s influence on architecture (particularly public buildings and spaces) and how this has evolved with democracy throughout the ages.

Objective 3 – The History of Democracy Project
We will create the first center dedicated to history of democracy. This will be a comprehensive, interactive multimedia service dedicated to self governance throughout the ages. Museum material will be presented via a dynamic map/timeline allowing visualization of democracy developments. As users move along the timeline, points will pop-up on map locations that were hotspots in democracy at the time indicated. The pop-ups will provide a brief explanation and can be clicked for a fuller explanation as well as relevant links to relevant material (internal and external). This will include democracy e-xhibits on interesting focal points of recurring and trans-national themes in history of freedom, such as world revolutions, democracy’s third wave, etc.. There will be a particular emphasis on ‘non-traditional’ areas of democratic development such as in the developing world and history of democracy in places other than the classical and Franco/Anglo worlds.

Potential Initial Democracy e-xhibit

On the Track of Freedom Project
A feature providing information regarding where and how to see and experience democratic history; a sort of first ever tourist guide for the evolving story of freedom.

Objective 4 – The New Frontiers in Democracy Project
We will fully present developments and emerging movements in the area of democracy (e.g., direct, economic, and electronic democracy, parliamentarianism, local assemblies, etc.).

Objective 5 – The World Town Square
We will create a feature allowing members and users to suggest or upload their own materials as well as comment on the materials and respond to others and to tag[i] the material according to categories they believe to be relevant.

Objective 6 – The Democracy Corner Store
We will subcontract an online service for the commercial provision of materials not yet in the public domain, and to sell related merchandise.

Objective 7 – The Members’ Corner
We will create a website area where members may post resolutions regarding governance and/or content of the World Democracy Museum and otherwise engage the World Democracy Museum itself and other members.

Future Objectives – World Democracy Museum Goals for Growth

a. Language

During this start-up phase of the World Democracy Museum, the working language will be English. We intend to translate the material as soon as practically possible into all the other official U.N. languages and ultimately in the languages of the world spoken by more than one hundred million people. The first focus will be on Mandarin, Hindi, Spanish, Arabic, Russian, Portuguese, French, Japanese, and Urdu. Since the foreseeable workload and budget will not permit for this, we will rely on volunteer translators for the most important materials. A future fundraising program will be conducted to secure translation resources.

b. World Democracy Communications Platform Expansion

Our decentralized virtual education model can be expanded and applied to other democracy related topics. Another natural growth path the Coordination Team could follow is to design creative and interesting projects utilizing material gathered in the World Democracy Museum. For example, an online World Citizen Film Festival. New democracy e-xhibits will be added regularly. Prioritization of these can be done in cooperation with funders and partners. For example, we can work with certain cities or companies to raise necessary funds to examine and display the relevance of democracy in particular areas or sectors. Individuals and/or groups in our membership community can also contribute to creating democracy e-xhibits.

In the second year of operations, the Coordination Team would like to invite a variety of democracy scholars and political historians, etc. to assemble a board of experts for the World Democracy Museum. The most important task would be to monitor the Museum material for accuracy. It would also provide another forum to reflect a diversity of peoples and ideas.

To increase visibility of the World Democracy Museum, we intend to include an officer to create media outreach tools to more thoroughly promote the World Democracy Museum. This officer can be charged with the production of several useful and freely accessible democracy education tools such as e-study guides, course models, and (home) study packages. There are several professors in the global democracy movement who have shown interest in this and can provide an outlet. We envision a World Citizens’ Guide to World Governance as an early project.

c. World Power Watch Program

This is a natural and useful extension of the work of the Museum and part of logical and practical growth: We initially will assemble and disseminate existing (static) content. We will then focus on doing this with newly created (dynamic) material and ultimately will participate in creating new material. The World Democracy Museum can utilize skills it assembles during its first years to become a more active partner in the larger democracy movement. We can become a democracy social entrepreneur and catalyst for new projects. In addition to having social value unto themselves, participation in a wider variety of projects will provide an opportunity to reach a wider audience. The World Power Watch Program will be the substantial step in the World Democracy Museum becoming an active citizen of world civil society. This Program will provide interesting materials directly to visitors, but it will also serve as a center for activism. The members will be able to do as well as to learn.

We will select various concentrations of political power and shed light on them by researching and reporting. We envision a clearinghouse of learning and activism around threats to democracy. We will gather, analyze, and disseminate information on the state of governance and freedom in the world in a process similar to the ‘surveying, analyzing, reporting, training, and advocating’ done by Transparency International for transparency or Human Right Watch for human rights. Despite the success and value of such organizations, there are still large and basic gaps, which we will focus on filling. Potential activities could include creating a first ever comprehensive information center on the world’s various monarchs featuring a database comparing and contrasting their powers and privileges (“Monarchy Watch”), and applying the same watching, rating, and training methodology to the proliferating private militia companies (“Mercenary Watch”). Special focus could be placed on the varying legal status of such entities. We also could introduce open source map mash-up[ii] technology so citizens worldwide can blog, etc. about their varying experiences with these non-governmental armed organizations but also indicate where the experience occurred, which will be translated on a map for the viewers. Another example could be working with NGOs and parliaments, etc. worldwide to assemble the first exhaustive list of elected officials and other power players (the “Who Speaks for You?” Project). This would allow visitors to complete a short and basic form to generate a list of names and contact details of individuals and agencies representing the user at various government levels.

d. World Democracy Museum – Physical Institution

Research shows virtual visitors outnumber physical visitors at the world’s major museums[iii]. Starting with an online museum lowers start-up costs and allows a more physically dispersed audience to be reached nearly immediately. The electronic platform will allow for quicker and cheaper gathering materials, particularly those scattered throughout the world. Over time, if the amount of physical material and the needs of the member community demand a physical home for the World Democracy Museum, we will consider this option at that time.

3 OVERALL MONITORING and evaluation Methodology

Evaluation Procedures
• Self monitoring (by both the Coordination Team and Board of Directors) through continuous measurement of the goals versus results;
• Ongoing survey on the website for users as well as follow-up surveys of members;
• Monitor number of websites linking to the World Democracy Museum;
• Monitor level of users’ printing and downloading of material;
• Disaggregate socio-demographic data of users (also sector and organizational affiliation);
• Posted request on website for ongoing suggestions, corrections, and other feedback (and e-mail address and online form provided for ease of responsiveness) as well as a standard citation and request for users of materials to credit GDR as the source of materials and to inform us how they are using the materials.

Evaluation Indicators
• Hits, unique visits, and links to the website;
• Number of people directly and indirectly involved as well as gender and age diversity;
• Geographic diversity of users and the number being members of vulnerable groups;
• Quality and quantity of feedback gathered from participants;
• Amount of material processed and level of new material generated;
• Media exposure (both old and new media).

Expected Results
• Facilitated learning through worldwide distribution of easily accessible and free material;
• Nurtured notion of democracy as diverse set of beliefs and practices;
• Presented democracy as result of long and interesting history and philosophy;
• Demonstrated democracy is salient in different parts of the world and different cultural contexts;
• Provided visibility to large amount and diversity of democracy materials;
• Assembled largest possible amount and widest spectrum of materials in same place;
• Further encouraged more and more diverse works by providing an additional outlet for them;
• Provided additional exposure to and interest in democracy works;
• Further augmented the collection of the World Democracy Library with new work;
• Broadened and enriched the debate regarding governance reform;
• Strengthened ties in democratization community by provision of centralized free collaboration;
• Encouraged sharing of experiences and best practices;
• Generated new thinking about governance and new ideas about how it can be reformed;
• Increased number of visitors to the World Democracy Museum with each new activity;
• Provided place for newly interested parties to participate and get involved;
• Provided additional content to parties worldwide to use in their democracy related work;
• Brought new attention to old/out-of-print works and in doing so helped conserve patrimony.

Targets
• Website hits increase by 1,000 per month;
• 1 substantive contribution by visitor per month included in the bibliography;
• 1 work per week downloaded, printed, etc.;
• Hits, links, visitors, and members from 40 countries on 3 continents;
• 150 members by the end of the third year of operations;
• A reasonable amount of gender parity and age distribution after 2 years of activities;
• Apply to I.C.O.M. (and “.museum” domain) within 18 months of commencement;
• Museum covered in at least ten related civil society or other newsletters.

4 RESOURCES NEEDED

Initial Human Resource Requirements

a. Coordinating Officer

To act as permanent employee but may commence activities on a part time contract basis to minimize initial fixed costs:
Extensive knowledge and connections in law, governance, and global democracy movement;
Familiarity with (researching) democracy literature and other materials;
Experience in international organizations and law and finance to incorporate the trans-national structure and Board of Directors and to manage the books and operations of a small start-up Coordination Team;
Experience with civil society and other start-ups as well as familiarity with open source content management systems.

b. Web Development Specialist

A sub-contracted service or individual:
To develop the website (basic functionality and design themes);
To establish ongoing content management system (open source – Drupal).

Initial Marketing Requirements

The Museum will have a logo and trade dress (designed by volunteers) as well as some very basic printed marketing tools (e.g., business cards) to distribute at meetings, etc., but the vast majority of marketing will occur through new media and social networking channels. This is much more cost efficient, but it is also more effective at quickly gathering interest among younger populations. This is also important to appeal to this online audience, since the World Democracy Museum itself will commence activities as an electronic project and will position itself as a collaborative museum / museum 2.0.

Time Requirements

The World Democracy Museum is designed to be a permanent enterprise of all citizens interested in freedom and good governance. The activities described above will be ongoing and will be commenced upon the securing of a minimum amount of funds. These are envisioned to be able to be started in one year, and to reach some fruition during that time. The potential initial democracy e-xhibits described above are an example of what is able to be done with the resources detailed herein. Initial focus will be on getting the Museum started and making it sustainable. More activities and democracy e-xhibits will be added as resources become available. The more fundable democracy e-xhibits will be prioritized.

5 financial requirements (Budget)

Please see Annex A

[i] “Tag” is a new term associated with Web 2.0 methodologies meaning a keyword associated with and assigned to information and/or data allowing this information to be classified together with other information similarly tagged and thus accessible together under certain search functions, et cetera.

[ii] “Mash-up” is a new term associated with Web 2.0 methodologies describing information and/or data assembled together with information from another source and media creating a new presentation. The most common example is GoogleMaps, which allow users to take textual or photographic information and situation on a related location on a map.

[iii] See for example, ECSITE Annual Conference Report (December 2004) by R. Hawkey at http://www.futurelab.org.uk/resources/publications_reports_articles/web_articles/Web_Article550 .

Immanuel Kant's Perpetual Peace

Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch
By Immanuel Kant

1795



Whether this satirical inscription on a Dutch innkeeper's sign upon which a burial ground was painted had for its object mankind in general, or the rulers of states in particular, who are insatiable of war, or merely the philosophers who dream this sweet dream, it is not for us to decide. But one condition the author of this essay wishes to lay down. The practical politician assumes the attitude of looking down with great self-satisfaction on the political theorist as a pedant whose empty ideas in no way threaten the security of the state, inasmuch as the state must proceed on empirical principles; so the theorist is allowed to play his game without interference from the worldly-wise statesman. Such being his attitude, the practical politician--and this is the condition I make--should at least act consistently in the case of a conflict and not suspect some danger to the state in the political theorist's opinions which are ventured and publicly expressed without any ulterior purpose. By this clausula salvatoria the author desires formally and emphatically to deprecate herewith any malevolent interpretation which might be placed on his words.

SECTION I
CONTAINING THE PRELIMINARY ARTICLES FOR PERPETUAL PEACE AMONG STATES
1. "No Treaty of Peace Shall Be Held Valid in Which There Is Tacitly Reserved Matter for a Future War"
Otherwise a treaty would be only a truce, a suspension of hostilities but not peace, which means the end of all hostilities--so much so that even to attach the word "perpetual" to it is a dubious pleonasm. The causes for making future wars (which are perhaps unknown to the contracting parties) are without exception annihilated by the treaty of peace, even if they should be dug out of dusty documents by acute sleuthing. When one or both parties to a treaty of peace, being too exhausted to continue warring with each other, make a tacit reservation (reservatio mentalis) in regard to old claims to be elaborated only at some more favorable opportunity in the future, the treaty is made in bad faith, and we have an artifice worthy of the casuistry of a Jesuit. Considered by itself, it is beneath the dignity of a sovereign, just as the readiness to indulge in this kind of reasoning is unworthy of the dignity of his minister.
But if, in consequence of enlightened concepts of statecraft, the glory of the state is placed in its continual aggrandizement by whatever means, my conclusion will appear merely academic and pedantic.
2. "No Independent States, Large or Small, Shall Come under the Dominion of Another State by Inheritance, Exchange, Purchase, or Donation"
A state is not, like the ground which it occupies, a piece of property (patrimonium). It is a society of men whom no one else has any right to command or to dispose except the state itself. It is a trunk with its own roots. But to incorporate it into another state, like a graft, is to destroy its existence as a moral person, reducing it to a thing; such incorporation thus contradicts the idea of the original contract without which no right over a people can be conceived.1
Everyone knows to what dangers Europe, the only part of the world where this manner of acquisition is known, has been brought, even down to the most recent times, by the presumption that states could espouse one another; it is in part a new kind of industry for gaining ascendancy by means of family alliances and without expenditure of forces, and in part a way of extending one's domain. Also the hiring-out of troops by one state to another, so that they can be used against an enemy not common to both, is to be counted under this principle; for in this manner the subjects, as though they were things to be manipulated at pleasure, are used and also used up.
3. "Standing Armies (miles perpetuus) Shall in Time Be Totally Abolished"
For they incessantly menace other states by their readiness to appear at all times prepared for war; they incite them to compete with each other in the number of armed men, and there is no limit to this. For this reason, the cost of peace finally becomes more oppressive than that of a short war, and consequently a standing army is itself a cause of offensive war waged in order to relieve the state of this burden. Add to this that to pay men to kill or to be killed seems to entail using them as mere machines and tools in the hand of another (the state), and this is hardly compatible with the rights of mankind in our own person. But the periodic and voluntary military exercises of citizens who thereby secure themselves and their country against foreign aggression are entirely different.
The accumulation of treasure would have the same effect, for, of the three powers--the power of armies, of alliances, and of money--the third is perhaps the most dependable weapon. Such accumulation of treasure is regarded by other states as a threat of war, and if it were not for the difficulties in learning the amount, it would force the other state to make an early attack.
4. "National Debts Shall Not Be Contracted with a View to the External Friction of States"
This expedient of seeking aid within or without the state is above suspicion when the purpose is domestic economy (e.g., the improvement of roads, new settlements, establishment of stores against unfruitful years, etc.). But as an opposing machine in the antagonism of powers, a credit system which grows beyond sight and which is yet a safe debt for the present requirements--because all the creditors do not require payment at one time--constitutes a dangerous money power. This ingenious invention of a commercial people [England] in this century is dangerous because it is a war treasure which exceeds the treasures of all other states; it cannot be exhausted except by default of taxes (which is inevitable), though it can be long delayed by the stimulus to trade which occurs through the reaction of credit on industry and commerce. This facility in making war, together with the inclination to do so on the part of rulers--an inclination which seems inborn in human nature--is thus a great hindrance to perpetual peace. Therefore, to forbid this credit system must be a preliminary article of perpetual peace all the more because it must eventually entangle many innocent states in the inevitable bankruptcy and openly harm them. They are therefore justified in allying themselves against such a state and its measures.
5. "No State Shall by Force Interfere with the Constitution or Government of Another State"
For what is there to authorize it to do so? The offense, perhaps, which a state gives to the subjects of another state? Rather the example of the evil into which a state has fallen because of its lawlessness should serve as a warning. Moreover, the bad example which one free person affords another as a scandalum acceptum is not an infringement of his rights. But it would be quite different if a state, by internal rebellion, should fall into two parts, each of which pretended to be a separate state making claim to the whole. To lend assistance to one of these cannot be considered an interference in the constitution of the other state (for it is then in a state of anarchy) . But so long as the internal dissension has not come to this critical point, such interference by foreign powers would infringe on the rights of an independent people struggling with its internal disease; hence it would itself be an offense and would render the autonomy of all states insecure.
6. "No State Shall, during War, Permit Such Acts of Hostility Which Would Make Mutual Confidence in the Subsequent Peace Impossible: Such Are the Employment of Assassins (percussores), Poisoners (venefici), Breach of Capitulation, and Incitement to Treason (perduellio) in the Opposing State"
These are dishonorable stratagems. For some confidence in the character of the enemy must remain even in the midst of war, as otherwise no peace could be concluded and the hostilities would degenerate into a war of extermination (bellum internecinum). War, however, is only the sad recourse in the state of nature (where there is no tribunal which could judge with the force of law) by which each state asserts its right by violence and in which neither party can be adjudged unjust (for that would presuppose a juridical decision); in lieu of such a decision, the issue of the conflict (as if given by a so-called "judgment of God") decides on which side justice lies. But between states no punitive war (bellum punitivum) is conceivable, because there is no relation between them of master and servant.
It follows that a war of extermination, in which the destruction of both parties and of all justice can result, would permit perpetual peace only in the vast burial ground of the human race. Therefore, such a war and the use of all means leading to it must be absolutely forbidden. But that the means cited do inevitably lead to it is clear from the fact that these infernal arts, vile in themselves, when once used would not long be confined to the sphere of war. Take, for instance, the use of spies (uti exploratoribus). In this, one employs the infamy of others (which can never be entirely eradicated) only to encourage its persistence even into the state of peace, to the undoing of the very spirit of peace.
Although the laws stated are objectively, i.e., in so far as they express the intention of rulers, mere prohibitions (leges prohibitivae), some of them are of that strict kind which hold regardless of circumstances (leges strictae) and which demand prompt execution. Such are Nos. 1, 5, and 6. Others, like Nos. 2, 3, and 4, while not exceptions from the rule of law, nevertheless are sub- jectively broader (leges latae) in respect to their observation, containing permission to delay their execution without, however, losing sight of the end. This permission does not authorize, under No. 2, for example, delaying until doomsday (or, as Augustus used to say, ad calendas Graecas) the re-establishment of the freedom of states which have been deprived of it--i.e., it does not permit us to fail to do it, but it allows a delay to prevent precipitation which might injure the goal striven for. For the prohibition concerns only the manner of acquisition which is no longer permitted, but not the possession, which, though not bearing a requisite title of right, has nevertheless been held lawful in all states by the public opinion of the time (the time of the putative acquisition).2.

SECTION II
CONTAINING THE DEFINITIVE ARTICLESFOR PERPETUAL PEACE AMONG STATES
The state of peace among men living side by side is not the natural state (status naturalis); the natural state is one of war. This does not always mean open hostilities, but at least an unceasing threat of war. A state of peace, therefore, must be established, for in order to be secured against hostility it is not sufficient that hostilities simply be not committed; and, unless this security is pledged to each by his neighbor (a thing that can occur only in a civil state), each may treat his neighbor, from whom he demands this security, as an enemy.3
FIRST DEFINITIVE ARTICLE FOR PERPETUAL PEACE
"The Civil Constitution of Every State Should Be Republican"
The only constitution which derives from the idea of the original compact, and on which all juridical legislation of a people must be based, is the republican. 4 This constitution is established, firstly, by principles of the freedom of the members of a society (as men); secondly, by principles of dependence of all upon a single common legislation (as subjects); and, thirdly, by the law of their equality (as citizens). The republican constitution, therefore, is, with respect to law, the one which is the original basis of every form of civil constitution. The only question now is: Is it also the one which can lead to perpetual peace?
The republican constitution, besides the purity of its origin (having sprung from the pure source of the concept of law), also gives a favorable prospect for the desired consequence, i.e., perpetual peace. The reason is this: if the consent of the citizens is required in order to decide that war should be declared (and in this constitution it cannot but be the case), nothing is more natural than that they would be very cautious in commencing such a poor game, decreeing for themselves all the calamities of war. Among the latter would be: having to fight, having to pay the costs of war from their own resources, having painfully to repair the devastation war leaves behind, and, to fill up the measure of evils, load themselves with a heavy national debt that would embitter peace itself and that can never be liquidated on account of constant wars in the future. But, on the other hand, in a constitution which is not republican, and under which the subjects are not citizens, a declaration of war is the easiest thing in the world to decide upon, because war does not require of the ruler, who is the proprietor and not a member of the state, the least sacrifice of the pleasures of his table, the chase, his country houses, his court functions, and the like. He may, therefore, resolve on war as on a pleasure party for the most trivial reasons, and with perfect indifference leave the justification which decency requires to the diplomatic corps who are ever ready to provide it.
In order not to confuse the republican constitution with the democratic (as is commonly done), the following should be noted. The forms of a state (civitas) can be divided either according to the persons who possess the sovereign power or according to the mode of administration exercised over the people by the chief, whoever he may be. The first is properly called the form of sovereignty (forma imperii), and there are only three possible forms of it: autocracy, in which one, aristocracy, in which some associated together, or democracy, in which all those who constitute society, possess sovereign power. They may be characterized, respectively, as the power of a monarch, of the nobility, or of the people. The second division is that by the form of government (forma regiminis) and is based on the way in which the state makes use of its power; this way is based on the constitution, which is the act of the general will through which the many persons become one nation. In this respect government is either republican or despotic. Republicanism is the political principle of the separation of the executive power (the administration) from the legislative; despotism is that of the autonomous execution by the state of laws which it has itself decreed. Thus in a despotism the public will is administered by the ruler as his own will. Of the three forms of the state, that of democracy is, properly speaking, necessarily a despotism, because it establishes an executive power in which "all" decide for or even against one who does not agree; that is, "all," who are not quite all, decide, and this is a contradiction of the general will with itself and with freedom.
Every form of government which is not representative is, properly speaking, without form. The legislator can unite in one and the same person his function as legislative and as executor of his will just as little as the universal of the major premise in a syllogism can also be the subsumption of the particular under the universal in the minor. And even though the other two constitutions are always defective to the extent that they do leave room for this mode of administration, it is at least possible for them to assume a mode of government conforming to the spirit of a representative system (as when Frederick II at least said he was merely the first servant of the state).5 On the other hand, the democratic mode of government makes this impossible, since everyone wishes to be master. Therefore, we can say: the smaller the personnel of the government (the smaller the number of rulers), the greater is their representation and the more nearly the constitution approaches to the possibility of republicanism; thus the constitution may be expected by gradual reform finally to raise itself to republicanism. For these reasons it is more difficult for an aristocracy than for a monarchy to achieve the one completely juridical constitution, and it is impossible for a democracy to do so except by violent revolution.
The mode of governments, 6 however, is incomparably more important to the people than the form of sovereignty, although much depends on the greater or lesser suitability of the latter to the end of [good] government. To conform to the concept of law, however, government must have a representative form, and in this system only a republican mode of government is possible; without it, government is despotic and arbitrary, whatever the constitution may be. None of the ancient so-called "republics" knew this system, and they all finally and inevitably degenerated into despotism under the sovereignty of one, which is the most bearable of all forms of despotism. SECOND DEFINITIVE ARTICLE FOR A PERPETUAL PEACE
"The Law of Nations Shall be Founded on a Federation of Free States"
Peoples, as states, like individuals, may be judged to injure one another merely by their coexistence in the state of nature (i.e., while independent of external laws). Each of then, may and should for the sake of its own security demand that the others enter with it into a constitution similar to the civil constitution, for under such a constitution each can be secure in his right. This would be a league of nations, but it would not have to be a state consisting of nations. That would be contradictory, since a state implies the relation of a superior (legislating) to an inferior (obeying), i.e., the people, and many nations in one state would then constitute only one nation. This contradicts the presupposition, for here we have to weigh the rights of nations against each other so far as they are distinct states and not amalgamated into one.
When we see the attachment of savages to their lawless freedom, preferring ceaseless combat to subjection to a lawful constraint which they might establish, and thus preferring senseless freedom to rational freedom, we regard it with deep contempt as barbarity, rudeness, and a brutish degradation of humanity. Accordingly, one would think that civilized people (each united in a state) would hasten all the more to escape, the sooner the better, from such a depraved condition. But, instead, each state places its majesty (for it is absurd to speak of the majesty of the people) in being subject to no external juridical restraint, and the splendor of its sovereign consists in the fact that many thousands stand at his command to sacrifice themselves for something that does not concern them and without his needing to place himself in the least danger.7 The chief difference between European and American savages lies in the fact that many tribes of the latter have been eaten by their enemies, while the former know how to make better use of their conquered enemies than to dine off them; they know better how to use them to increase the number of their subjects and thus the quantity of instruments for even more extensive wars.
When we consider the perverseness of human nature which is nakedly revealed in the uncontrolled relations between nations (this perverseness being veiled in the state of civil law by the constraint exercised by government), we may well be astonished that the word "law" has not yet been banished from war politics as pedantic, and that no state has yet been bold enough to advocate this point of view. Up to the present, Hugo Grotius, Pufendorf, Vattel, and many other irritating comforters have been cited in justification of war, though their code, philosophically or diplomatically formulated, has not and cannot have the least legal force, because states as such do not stand under a common external power. There is no instance on record that a state has ever been moved to desist from its purpose because of arguments backed up by the testimony of such great men. But the homage which each state pays (at least in words) to the concept of law proves that there is slumbering in man an even greater moral disposition to become master of the evil principle in himself (which he cannot disclaim) and to hope for the same from others. Otherwise the word "law" would never be pronounced by states which wish to war upon one another; it would be used only ironically, as a Gallic prince interpreted it when he said, "It is the prerogative which nature has given the stronger that the weaker should obey him."
States do not plead their cause before a tribunal; war alone is their way of bringing suit. But by war and its favorable issue, in victory, right is not decided, and though by a treaty of peace this particular war is brought to an end, the state of war, of always finding a new pretext to hostilities, is not terminated. Nor can this be declared wrong, considering the fact that in this state each is the judge of his own case. Notwithstanding, the obligation which men in a lawless condition have under the natural law, and which requires them to abandon the state of nature, does not quite apply to states under the law of nations, for as states they already have an internal juridical constitution and have thus outgrown compulsion from others to submit to a more extended lawful constitution according to their ideas of right. This is true in spite of the fact that reason, from its throne of supreme moral legislating authority, absolutely condemns war as a legal recourse and makes a state of peace a direct duty, even though peace cannot be established or secured except by a compact among nations.
For these reasons there must be a league of a particular kind, which can be called a league of peace (foedus pacificum), and which would be distinguished from a treaty of peace (pactum pacis) by the fact that the latter terminates only one war, while the former seeks to make an end of all wars forever. This league does not tend to any dominion over the power of the state but only to the maintenance and security of the freedom of the state itself and of other states in league with it, without there being any need for them to submit to civil laws and their compulsion, as men in a state of nature must submit.
The practicability (objective reality) of this idea of federation, which should gradually spread to all states and thus lead to perpetual peace, can be proved. For if fortune directs that a powerful and enlightened people can make itself a republic, which by its nature must be inclined to perpetual peace, this gives a fulcrum to the federation with other states so that they may adhere to it and thus secure freedom under the idea of the law of nations. By more and more such associations, the federation may be gradually extended.
We may readily conceive that a people should say, "There ought to be no war among us, for we want to make ourselves into a state; that is, we want to establish a supreme legislative, executive, and judiciary power which will reconcile our differences peaceably." But when this state says, "There ought to be no war between myself and other states, even though I acknowledge no supreme legislative power by which our rights are mutually guaranteed," it is not at all clear on what I can base my confidence in my own rights unless it is the free federation, the surrogate of the civil social order, which reason necessarily associates with the concept of the law of nations--assuming that something is really meant by the latter.
The concept of a law of nations as a right to make war does not really mean anything, because it is then a law of deciding what is right by unilateral maxims through force and not by universally valid public laws which restrict the freedom of each one. The only conceivable meaning of such a law of nations might be that it serves men right who are so inclined that they should destroy each other and thus find perpetual peace in the vast grave that swallows both the atrocities and their perpetrators. For states in their relation to each other, there cannot be any reasonable way out of the lawless condition which entails only war except that they, like individual men, should give up their savage (lawless) freedom, adjust themselves to the constraints of public law, and thus establish a continuously growing state consisting of various nations (civitas gentium), which will ultimately include all the nations of the world. But under the idea of the law of nations they do not wish this, and reject in practice what is correct in theory. If all is not to be lost, there can be, then, in place of the positive idea of a world republic, only the negative surrogate of an alliance which averts war, endures, spreads, and holds back the stream of those hostile passions which fear the law, though such an alliance is in constant peril of their breaking loose again.8 Furor impius intus . . . fremit horridus ore cruento (Virgil).
THIRD DEFINITIVE ARTICLE FOR A PERPETUAL PEACE
"The Law of World Citizenship Shall Be Limited to Conditions of Universal Hospitality"
Here, as in the preceding articles, it is not a question of philanthropy but of right. Hospitality means the right of a stranger not to be treated as an enemy when he arrives in the land of another. One may refuse to receive him when this can be done without causing his destruction; but, so long as he peacefully occupies his place, one may not treat him with hostility. It is not the right to be a permanent visitor that one may demand. A special beneficent agreement would be needed in order to give an outsider a right to become a fellow inhabitant for a certain length of time. It is only a right of temporary sojourn, a right to associate, which all men have. They have it by virtue of their common possession of the surface of the earth, where, as a globe, they cannot infinitely disperse and hence must finally tolerate the presence of each other. Originally, no one had more right than another to a particular part of the earth.
Uninhabitable parts of the earth--the sea and the deserts--divide this community of all men, but the ship and the camel (the desert ship) enable them to approach each other across these unruled regions and to establish communication by using the common right to the face of the earth, which belongs to human beings generally. The inhospitality of the inhabitants of coasts (for instance, of the Barbary Coast) in robbing ships in neighboring seas or enslaving stranded travellers, or the inhospitality of the inhabitants of the deserts (for instance, the Bedouin Arabs) who view contact with nomadic tribes as conferring the right to plunder them, is thus opposed to natural law, even though it extends the right of hospitality, i.e., the privilege of foreign arrivals, no further than to conditions of the possibility of seeking to communicate with the prior inhabitants. In this way distant parts of the world can come into peaceable relations with each other, and these are finally publicly established by law. Thus the human race can gradually be brought closer and closer to a constitution establishing world citizenship.
But to this perfection compare the inhospitable actions of the civilized and especially of the commercial states of our part of the world. The injustice which they show to lands and peoples they visit (which is equivalent to conquering them) is carried by them to terrifying lengths. America, the lands inhabited by the Negro, the Spice Islands, the Cape, etc., were at the time of their discovery considered by these civilized intruders as lands without owners, for they counted the inhabitants as nothing. In East India (Hindustan), under the pretense of establishing economic undertakings, they brought in foreign soldiers and used them to oppress the natives, excited widespread wars among the various states, spread famine, rebellion, perfidy, and the whole litany of evils which afflict mankind.
China 9 and Japan (Nippon), who have had experience with such guests, have wisely refused them entry, the former permitting their approach to their shores but not their entry, while the latter permit this approach to only one European people, the Dutch, but treat them like prisoners, not allowing them any communication with the inhabitants. The worst of this (or, to speak with the moralist, the best) is that all these outrages profit them nothing, since all these commercial ventures stand on the verge of collapse, and the Sugar Islands, that place of the most refined and cruel slavery, produces no real revenue except indirectly, only serving a not very praiseworthy purpose of furnishing sailors for war fleets and thus for the conduct of war in Europe. This service is rendered to powers which make a great show of their piety, and, while they drink injustice like water, they regard themselves as the elect in point of orthodoxy.
Since the narrower or wider community of the peoples of the earth has developed so far that a violation of rights in one place is felt throughout the world, the idea of a law of world citizenship is no high-flown or exaggerated notion. It is a supplement to the unwritten code of the civil and international law, indispensable for the maintenance of the public human rights and hence also of perpetual peace. One cannot flatter oneself into believing one can approach this peace except under the condition outlined here.

Footnotes
1. A hereditary kingdom is not a state which can be inherited by another state, but the right to govern it can be inherited by another physical person. The state thereby acquires a ruler, but he, as a ruler (i.e., as one already possessing another realm), does not acquire the state.
2. It has not without cause hitherto been doubted whether besides the commands (leges praeceptivae) and prohibitions (leges prohibitivae) there could also be permissive laws (leges permissivae) of pure reason. For laws as such contain a principle of objective practical necessity, while permission implies a principle of the practical contingency of certain actions. Hence a law of permission would imply constraint to an action to do that to which no one can be constrained. If the object of the law has the same meaning in both cases, this is a contradiction. But in permissive law, which is in question here, the prohibition refers only to the future mode of acquisition of a right (e.g., by succession), while the permission annuls this prohibition only with reference to the present possession. This possession, though only putative, may be held to be just (possessio putative) in the transition from the state of nature to a civil state, by virtue of a permissive law included under natural law, even though it is [strictly] illegal. But, as soon as it is recognized as illegal in the state of nature, a similar mode of acquisition in the subsequent civil state (after this transition has occurred) is forbidden, and this right to continuing possession would not hold if such a presumptive acquisition had taken place in the civil state. For in this case it would be an infringement which would have to cease as soon as its illegality was discovered.
I have wished only to call the attention of the teachers of natural law to the concept of a lex permissive, which systematic reason affords, particularly since in civil (statute) law use is often made of it. But in the ordinary use of it, there is this difference: prohibitive law stands alone, while permission is not introduced into it as a limiting condition (as it should be) but counted among the exceptions to it. Then it is said, "This or that is forbidden, except Nos. 1, 2, 3," and so on indefinitely. These exceptions are added to the law only as an afterthought required by our groping around among cases as they arise, and not by any principle. Otherwise the conditions would have had to be introduced into the formula of the prohibition, and in this way it would itself have become a permissive law. It is, therefore, unfortunate that the subtle question proposed by the wise and acute Count von WindischgrƤtz was never answered and soon consigned to oblivion, because it insisted on the point here discussed. For the possibility of a formula similar to those of mathematics is the only legitimate criterion of a consistent legislation, and without it the so-called ius certum must always remain a pious wish. Otherwise we shall have merely general laws (which apply to a great number of cases), but no universal laws (which apply to all cases) as the concept of law seems to requires.
3. We ordinarily assume that no one may act inimically toward another except when he has been actively injured by the other. This is quite correct if both are under civil law, for, by entering into such a state, they afford each other the requisite security through the sovereign which has power over both. Man (or the people) in the state of nature deprives me of this security and injures me, if he is near me, by this mere status of his, even though he does not injure me actively (facto); he does so by the lawlessness of his condition (statu iniusto) which constantly threatens me. Therefore, I can compel him either to enter with me into a state of civil law or to remove himself from my neighborhood. The postulate which is basic to all the following articles is: All men who can reciprocally influence each other must stand under some civil constitution.
Every juridical constitution which concerns the person who stands under it is one of the following: (1) The constitution conforming to the civil law of men in a nation (ius civitatis).
(2) The constitution conforming to the law of nations in their relation to one another (ius gentium).
(3) The constitution conforming to the law of world citizenship, so far as men and states are considered as citizens of a universal state of men, in their external mutual relationships (ius cosmopoliticum).
This division is not arbitrary, being necessary in relation to the idea of perpetual peace. For if only one state were related to another by physical influence and were yet in a state of nature, war would necessarily follow, and our purpose here is precisely to free ourselves of war.
4. Juridical (and hence) external freedom cannot be defined, as is usual, by the privilege of doing anything one wills so long as he does not injure another. For what is a privilege? It is the possibility of an action so far as one does not injure anyone by it. Then the definition would read: Freedom is the possibility of those actions by which one does no one an injury. One does another no injury (he may do as he pleases) only if he does another no injury--an empty tautology. Rather, my external (juridical) freedom is to be defined as follows: It is the privilege to lend obedience to no external laws except those to which I could have given consent. Similarly, external (juridical) equality in a state is that relationship among the citizens in which no one can lawfully bind another without at the same time subjecting himself to the law by which he also can be bound. No definition of juridical dependence is needed, as this already lies in the concept of a state's constitution as such.
The validity of these inborn rights, which are inalienable and belong necessarily to humanity, is raised to an even higher level by the principle of the juridical relation of man to higher beings, for, if he believes in them, he regards himself by the same principles as a citizen of a supersensuous world. For in what concerns my freedom, I have no obligation with respect to divine law, which can be acknowledged by my reason alone, except in so far as I could have given my consent to it. Indeed, it is only through the law of freedom of my own reason that I frame a concept of the divine will. With regard to the most sublime reason in the world that I can think of, with the exception of God--say, the great Aeon--when I do my duty in my post as he does in his, there is no reason under the law of equality why obedience to duty should fall only to me and the right to command only to him. The reason why this principle of equality does not pertain to our relation to God (as the principle of freedom does) is that this Being is the only one to which the concept of duty does not apply.
But with respect to the right of equality of all citizens as subjects, the question of whether a hereditary nobility may be tolerated turns upon the answer to the question as to whether the pre-eminent rank granted by the state to one citizen over another ought to precede merit or follow it. Now it is obvious that, if rank is associated with birth, it is uncertain whether merit (political skill and integrity) will also follow; hence it would be as if a favorite without any merit were given command. The general will of the people would never agree to this in the original contract, which is the principle of all law, for a nobleman is not necessarily a noble man. With regard to the nobility of office (as we might call the rank of the higher magistracy) which one must earn by merit, this rank does not belong to the person as his property; it belongs to his post, and equality is not thereby infringed, because when a man quits his office he renounces the rank it confers and re-enters into the class of his fellows.
5. The lofty epithets of "the Lord's anointed...... the executor of the divine will on earth," and "the vicar of God," which have been lavished on sovereigns, have been frequently censured as crude and intoxicating flatteries. But this seems to me without good reason. Far from inspiring a monarch with pride, they should rather render him humble, providing he possesses some intelligence (which we must assume). They should make him reflect that he has taken an office too great for man, an office which is the holiest God has ordained on earth, to be the trustee of the rights of men, and that he must always stand in dread of having in some way injured this "apple of God's eye."
6. Mallet du Pan, in his pompous but empty and hollow language, pretends to have become convinced, after long experience, of the truth of Pope's well-known saying:
"For forms of government let fools contest:Whate'er is best administered, is best."
If that means that the best-administered state is the state that is best administered, he has, to make use of Swift's expression, "cracked a nut to come at a maggot." But if it means that the best-administered state also has the best mode of government, i.e., the best constitution, then it is thoroughly wrong, for examples of good governments prove nothing about the form of government. Whoever reigned better than a Titus and a Marcus Aurelius? Yet one was succeeded by a Domitian and the other by a Commodus. This could never have happened under a good constitution, for their unworthiness for this post was known early enough and also the power of the ruler was sufficient to have excluded them.
7. A Bulgarian prince gave the following answer to the Greek emperor who good-naturedly suggested that they settle their difference by a duel: "A smith who has tongs won't pluck the glowing iron from the fire with his bare hands."
8. It would not ill become a people that has just terminated a war to decree, besides a day of thanksgiving, a day of fasting in order to ask heaven, in the name of the state, for forgiveness for the great iniquity which the human race still goes on to perpetuate in refusing to submit to a lawful constitution in their relation to other peoples, preferring, from pride in their independence, to make use of the barbarous means of war even though they are not able to attain what is sought, namely, the rights of a single state. The thanksgiving for victory won during the war, the hymns which are sung to the God of Hosts (in good Israelitic manner), stand in equally sharp contrast to the moral idea of the Father of Men. For they not only show a sad enough indifference to the way in which nations seek their rights, but in addition express a joy in having annihilated a multitude of men or their happiness.
9.To call this great empire by the name it gives itself, namely "China" and not "Sina" or anything like that, we have only to refer to [A.] Georgi, Alphabetum Tibetanum, pp. 651-54, especially note b. According to the note of Professor [Johann Eberhard] Fischer of Petersburg, there is no definite word used in that country as its name; the most usual word is "Kin," i.e., gold (which the Tibetans call "Ser"). Accordingly, the emperor is called "the king of gold," that is, king of the most splendid country in the world. In the empire itself, this word may be pronounced Chin, while because of the 'guttural sound the Italian missionaries may have called it Kin.--It is clear that what the Romans called the "Land of Seres" was China; the silk, however, was sent to Europe across Greater Tibet (through Lesser Tibet, Bukhara, Persia, and then on).
This suggests many reflections concerning the antiquity of this wonderful state, in comparison with that of Hindustan at the time of its union with Tibet and thence with Japan. We see, on the contrary, that the name "Sina" or "Tshina," said to have been used by the neighbors of the country, suggests nothing.
Perhaps we can also explain the very ancient but never well-known intercourse of Europe with Tibet by considering the shout, ('Konx Ompax'), of the hierophants in the Eleusinian mysteries, as we learn from Hysichius (cf. Travels of the Young Anacharsis, Part V, p. 447 ff.). For, according to Georgi, op. cit., the word Concoia means God, which has a striking resemblance to Konx. Pah-cio (ibid., 520), which the Greeks may well have pronounced pax, means the promulgator legis, divinity pervading the whole of nature (also called Cencresi, p. 177). Om, however, which La Croze translates as benedictus ("blessed"), when applied to divinity perhaps means "the beatified" (p. 507). P. Franz Orazio often asked the Lamas of Tibet what they understood by "God" (Concoia) and always got the answer, "It is the assembly of saints" (i.e., the assembly of the blessed ones who, according to the doctrine of rebirth, finally, after many wanderings through bodies of all kinds, have returned to God, or Burchane; that is to say, they are transmigrated souls, beings to be worshiped, p. 223). That mysterious expression Konx Ompax may well mean "the holy" (Konx), the blessed (Om), the wise (Pax), the supreme being pervading the world (nature personified). Its use in the Greek mysteries may indicate monotheism among the epopts in contrast to the polytheism of the people (though Orazio scented atheism there). How that mysterious word came to the Greeks via Tibet can perhaps be explained in this way; and the early traffic of Europe with China, also through Tibet, and perhaps earlier than communication with Hindustan, is made probable.

FIRST SUPPLEMENT
OF THE GUARANTEE FOR PERPETUAL PEACE

The guarantee of perpetual peace is nothing less than that great artist, nature (natura daedala rerum). In her mechanical course we see that her aim is to produce a harmony among men, against their will and indeed through their discord. As a necessity working according to laws we do not know, we call it destiny. But, considering its design in world history, we call it "providence," inasmuch as we discern in it the profound wisdom of a higher cause which predetermines the course of nature and directs it to the objective final end of the human race.1 We do not observe or infer this providence in the cunning contrivances of nature, but, as in questions of the relation of the form of things to ends in general, we can and must supply it from our own minds in order to conceive of its possibility by analogy to actions of human art. The idea of the relationship and harmony between these actions and the end which reason directly assigns to us is transcendent from a theoretical point of view; from a practical standpoint, with respect, for example, to the ideal of perpetual peace, the concept is dogmatic and its reality is well established, and thus the mechanism of nature may be employed to that end. The use of the word "nature" is more fitting to the limits of human reason and more modest than an expression indicating a providence unknown to us. This is especially true when we are dealing with questions of theory and not of religion, as at present, for human reason in questions of the relation of effects to their causes must remain within the limits of possible experience. On the other hand, the use of the word "providence" here intimates the possession of wings like those of Icarus, conducting us toward the secret of its unfathomable purpose.
Before we more narrowly define the guarantee which nature gives, it is necessary to examine the situation in which she has placed her actors on her vast stage, a situation which finally assures peace among them. Then we shall see how she accomplishes the latter. Her preparatory arrangements are:
1. In every region of the world she has made it possible for men to live.
2. By war she has driven them even into the most inhospitable regions in order to populate them. 3. By the same means, she has forced them into more or less lawful relations with each other.
That in the cold wastes by the Arctic Ocean the moss grows which the reindeer digs from the snow in order to make itself the prey or the conveyance of the Ostyak or Samoyed; or that the saline sandy deserts are inhabited by the camel which appears created as it were in order that they might not go unused--that is already wonderful. Still clearer is the end when we see how besides the furry animals of the Arctic there are also the seal, the walrus, and the whale which afford the inhabitants food from their flesh and warmth from their blubber. But the care of nature excites the greatest wonder when we see how she brings wood (though the inhabitants do not know whence it comes) to these barren climates, without which they would have neither canoes, weapons, nor huts, and when we see how these natives are so occupied with their war against the animals that they live in peace with each other--but what drove them there was presumably nothing else than war.
The first instrument of war among the animals which man learned to tame and to domesticate was the horse (for the elephant belongs to later times, to the luxury of already established states). The art of cultivating certain types of plants (grain) whose original characteristics we do not know, and the increase and improvement of fruits by transplantation and grafting (in Europe perhaps only the crab apple and the wild pear), could arise only under conditions prevailing in already established states where property was secure. Before this could take place, it was necessary that men who had first subsisted in anarchic freedom by hunting,2 fishing, and sheepherding should have been forced into an agricultural life. Then salt and iron were discovered. These were perhaps the first articles of commerce for the various peoples and were sought far and wide; in this way a peaceful traffic among nations was established, and thus understanding, conventions, and peaceable relations were established among the most distant peoples.
As nature saw to it. that men could live everywhere in the world, she also despotically willed that they should do so, even against their inclination and without this ought being based on a concept of duty to which they were bound by a moral law. She chose war as the means to this end. So we see peoples whose common language shows that they have a common origin. For instance, the Samoyeds on the Arctic Ocean and a people with a similar language a thousand miles away in the Altaian Mountains are separated by a Mongolian people adept at horsemanship and hence at war; the latter drove the former into the most inhospitable arctic regions where they certainly would not have spread of their own accord.3 Again, it is the same with the Finns who in the most northerly part of Europe are called Lapps; Goths and Sarmatians have separated them from the Hungarians to whom they are related in language. What can have driven the Eskimos, a race entirely distinct from all others in America and perhaps descended from primeval European adventurers, so far into the North, or the Pescherais as far south as Tierra del Fuego, if it were not war which nature uses to populate the whole earth? War itself requires no special motive but appears to be engrafted on human nature; it passes even for something noble, to which the love of glory impels men quite apart from any selfish urges. Thus among the American savages, just as much as among those of Europe during the age of chivalry, military valor is held to be of great worth in itself, not only during war (which is natural) but in order that there should be war. Often war is waged only in order to show valor; thus an inner dignity is ascribed to war itself, and even some philosophers have praised it as an ennoblement of humanity, forgetting the pronouncement of the Greek who said, "War is an evil inasmuch as it produces more wicked men than it takes away." So much for the measures nature takes to lead the human race, considered as a class of animals, to her own end.
Now we come to the question concerning that which is most essential in the design of perpetual peace: What has nature done with regard to this end which man's own reason makes his duty? That is, what has nature done to favor man's moral purpose, and how has she guaranteed (by compulsion but without prejudice to his freedom) that he shall do that which he ought to but does not do under the laws of freedom? This question refers to all three phases of public law, namely, civil law, the law of nations, and the law of world citizenship. If I say of nature that she wills that this or that occur, I do not mean that she imposes a duty on us to do it, for this can be done only by free practical reason; rather I mean that she herself does it, whether we will or not (fata volentem ducunt, nolentem trahunt ["Fates lead the willing, drive the unwilling" (Seneca Epist. mor. XVIII.)]
1. Even if a people were not forced by internal discord to submit to public laws, war would compel them to do so, for we have already seen that nature has placed each people near another which presses upon it, and against this it must form itself into a state in order to defend itself. Now the republican constitution is the only one entirely fitting to the rights of man. But it is the most difficult to establish and even harder to preserve, so that many say a republic would have to be a nation of angels, because men with their selfish inclinations are not capable of a constitution of such sublime form. But precisely with these inclinations nature comes to the aid of the general will established on reason, which is revered even though impotent in practice. Thus it is only a question of a good organization of the state (which does lie in man's power), whereby the powers of each selfish inclination are so arranged in opposition that one moderates or destroys the ruinous effect of the other. The consequence for reason is the same as if none of them existed, and man is forced to be a good citizen even if not a morally good person.
The problem of organizing a state, however hard it may seem, can be solved even for a race of devils, if only they are intelligent. The problem is: "Given a multitude of rational beings requiring universal laws for their preservation, but each of whom is secretly inclined to exempt himself from them, to establish a constitution in such a way that, although their private intentions conflict, they check each other, with the result that their public conduct is the same as if they had no such intentions."
A problem like this must be capable of solution; it does not require that we know how to attain the moral improvement of men but only that we should know the mechanism of nature in order to use it on men, organizing the conflict of the hostile intentions present in a people in such a way that they must compel themselves to submit to coercive laws. Thus a state of peace is established in which laws have force. We can see, even in actual states, which are far from perfectly organized, that in their foreign relations they approach that which the idea of right prescribes. This is so in spite of the fact that the intrinsic element of morality is certainly not the cause of it. (A good constitution is not to be expected from morality, but, conversely, a good moral condition of a people is to be expected only under a good constitution.) Instead of genuine morality, the mechanism of nature brings it to pass through selfish inclinations, which naturally conflict outwardly but which can be used by reason as a means for its own end, the sovereignty of law, and, as concerns the state, for promoting and securing internal and external peace.
This, then, is the truth of the matter: Nature inexorably wills that the right should finally triumph. What we neglect to do comes about by itself, though with great inconveniences to us. "If you bend the reed too much, you break it; and he who attempts too much attempts nothing" (Bouterwek).
2. The idea of international law presupposes the separate existence of many independent but neighboring states. Although this condition is itself a state of war (unless a federative union prevents the outbreak of hostilities), this is rationally preferable to the amalgamation of states under one superior power, as this would end in one universal monarchy, and laws always lose in vigor what government gains in extent; hence a soulless despotism falls into anarchy after stifling the seeds of the good. Nevertheless, every state, or its ruler, desires to establish lasting peace in this way, aspiring if possible to rule the whole world. But nature wills otherwise., She employs two means to separate peoples and to prevent them from mixing: differences of language and of religion.4 These differences involve a tendency to mutual hatred and pretexts for war, but the progress of civilization and men's gradual approach to- greater harmony in their principles finally leads to peaceful agreement. This is not like that peace which despotism (in the burial ground of freedom) produces through a weakening of all powers; it is, on the contrary, produced and maintained by their equilibrium in liveliest competition.
3. Just as nature wisely separates nations, which the will of every state, sanctioned by the principles of international law, would gladly unite by artifice or force, nations which could not have secured themselves against violence and war by means of the law of world citizenship unite because of mutual interest. The spirit of commerce, which is incompatible with war, sooner or later gains the upper hand in every state. As the power of money is perhaps the most dependable of all the powers (means) included under the state power, states see themselves forced, without any moral urge, to promote honorable peace and by mediation to prevent war wherever it threatens to break out. They do so exactly as if they stood in perpetual alliances, for great offensive alliances are in the nature of the case rare and even less often successful.
In this manner nature guarantees perpetual peace by the mechanism of human passions. Certainly she does not do so with sufficient certainty for us to predict the future in any theoretical sense, but adequately from a practical point of view, making it our duty to work toward this end, which is not just a chimerical one.

FOOTNOTES TO THE FIRST SUPPLEMENT
1. In the mechanism of nature, to which man belongs as, a sensuous being, a form is exhibited which is basic to its existence; we can conceive of this form only as dependent upon the end to which the Author of the world has previously destined it. This predetermination we call "divine providence" generally, and so far as it is exercised at the beginning of the world we call it "founding providence" (Providentia conditrix; semel iussit, semper parent--Augustine).["Providence is a founder; once she orders, they always obey."] As maintaining nature in its course by universal laws of design, it is called "ruling providence" (providentia gubernatrix); as directing nature to ends not foreseen by man and only conjectured from the actual result, it is called "guiding providence" (providentia directrix). With respect to single events as divine ends, it is no longer called "providence" but "dispensation" (directio extraordinaria). But since "divine dispensation" indicates miracles, even if the events themselves are not called such, it is a foolish pretension of man to wish to interpret them as such, since it is absurd to infer from a single event to a particular principle of the efficient cause, namely, that this event is an end and not merely a mechanical corollary of another end wholly unknown to us. However pious and humble such talk may be, it is full of self conceit. The division of providence, considered not formally but materially, i.e., with respect to objects in the world to which it is directed, into either general or particular providence, is false and self-contradictory. (This division appears, for instance, in the statement that providence cares for the preservation of the species but leaves individuals to chance.) It is contradictory because it is called universal in its purpose, and therefore no single thing can be excluded from it. Presumably, therefore, a formal distinction is intended, according to the way in which providence seeks its ends. This is the distinction between the ordinary and the special ways of providence. (Under the former we may cite the annual dying-out and rebirth of nature with the changes of the season; under the latter, the transport of wood by ocean currents to arctic lands where it cannot grow, yet where it is needed by the inhabitants who could not live without it.) Although we can very well explain the physico-mechanical cause of these extraordinary cases (e.g., by reference to the wooded banks of rivers in temperate lands, the failing of trees into the rivers, and then their being carried along by the Gulf Stream), we must not overlook the teleological cause, which intimates the foresight of a wisdom commanding over nature.
The concept of intervention or concurrence (concursus) in producing an effect in the world of sense must be given up, though it is quite usual in the schools. For to try to pair the disparate (gryphes iungere equis [Griffins shall mate with mares."-An allusion to Virgil, Eclogue Vill.]), and to let that which is itself the perfect cause of events in the world supplement its own predetermining providence in the course of the world (which would therefore have to have been inadequate), is self-contradictory. We fall into this self-contradiction, for example, when we say that next to God it was the physician who cured the ill, as if God had been his helper. For causa solitaria non iuvat; God is the author of the physician and all his medicines, and if we insist on ascending to the highest but theoretically inconceivable first cause, the effect must- be ascribed entirely to Him. Or we can ascribe it entirely to the physician, so far as we consider the occurrence as explicable in a chain of causes under the order of nature.
But, besides being self-contradictory, such a mode of thought brings an end to all definite principles in judging an effect. In a morally practical point of view, however, which is directed exclusively to the supersensuous, the concept of the divine concursus is quite suitable and even necessary. We find this, for instance, in the belief that God will compensate for our own lack of justice, provided -our intention was genuine; that He will do so by means that are inconceivable to us, and that therefore we should not relent in our endeavor after the good. But it is self-evident that no one should try to explain a good action (as an event in the world) as a result of this concursus, for this would be a vain theoretical knowledge of the supersensuous and therefore absurd.
2. Among all modes of life there is undoubtedly none more opposed to a civilized constitution than that of hunting, because families which must dwell separately soon become strangers and, scattered in extensive forests, also enemies, since each needs a great deal of space for obtaining food and clothing. The Noachic ban on blood (Genesis 9:4-6) (which was imposed by the baptized Jews as a condition on the later Christians who were converted from heathenism, though in a different connection--see The Acts 15:20; 21:25) seems to have been originally nothing more than a prohibition against the hunting life, because here raw flesh must often have been eaten; when the latter was forbidden, so also was the former.
3. One could ask: If nature willed that these icy coasts should not remain uninhabited, what would become of the inhabitants if nature ever failed (as might be expected) to bring driftwood to them? For it is reasonable to believe that, in the progress of civilization, the occupants of the temperate zone would make better use of the wood along rivers than simply to let it fall into the water and be carried to the sea. I answer: If nature compels them to peace, the dwellers along the Ob, the Yenisei, or the Lena will bring it to them, exchanging it for animal products in which the sea around the Arctic coasts abounds.
4. Difference of religion--a singular expression! It is precisely as if one spoke of different moralities. There may very well be different kinds of historical faiths attached to different means employed in the promotion of religion, and they belong merely in the field of learned investigation. Similarly there may be different religious texts (Zendavesta, the Veda, the Koran, etc.), but such differences do not exist in religion, there being only one religion valid for all men and in all ages. These can, therefore, be nothing else than accidental vehicles of religion, thus changing with times and places.

SECOND SUPPLEMENT
SECRET ARTICLE FOR PERPETUAL PEACE

A secret article in contracts under public law is objectively, i.e., from the standpoint of its content, a contradiction. Subjectively, however, a secret clause can be present in them, because the persons who dictate it might find it compromising to their dignity to declare openly that they are its authors.
The only article of this kind is contained in the statement: "The opinions of philosophers on the conditions of the possibility of public peace shall be consulted by those states armed for war."
But it appears humiliating to the legislative authority of a state, to whom we must naturally attribute the utmost wisdom, to seek instruction from subjects (the philosophers) on principles of conduct toward other states. It is nevertheless very advisable to do so. Therefore, the state tacitly and secretly invites them to give their opinions, that is, the state will let them publicly and freely talk about the general maxims of warfare and of the establishment of peace (for they will do that of themselves, provided they are not forbidden to do so). It does not require a particular convention among states to see that this is done, since their agreement on this point lies in an obligation already established by universal human reason which is morally legislative.
I do not mean that the state should give the principles of philosophers any preference over the decisions of lawyers (the representatives of the state power); I only ask that they be given a hearing. The lawyer, who has made not only the scales of right but also the sword of justice his symbol, generally uses the latter not merely to keep back all foreign influences from the former, but, if the scale does not sink the way he wishes, he also throws the sword into it (vae victis), a practice to which he often has the greatest temptation because he is not also a philosopher, even in morality. His office is only to apply positive laws, not to inquire whether they might not need improvement. The administrative function, which is the lower one in his faculty, he counts as the higher because it is invested with power (as is the case also with the other faculties). The philosophical faculty occupies a very low rank against this allied power. Thus it is said of philosophy, for example, that she is the handmaiden to theology, and the other faculties claim as much. But one does not see distinctly whether she precedes her mistress with a flambeau or follows bearing her train.
That kings should philosophize or philosophers become kings is not to be expected. Nor is it to be wished, since the possession of power inevitably corrupts the untrammeled judgment of reason. But kings or kinglike peoples which rule themselves under laws of equality should not suffer the class of philosophers to disappear or to be silent, but should let them speak openly. This is indispensable to the enlightenment of the business of government, and, since the class of philosophers is by nature incapable of plotting and lobbying, it is above suspicion of being made up of propagandists.

APPENDIX I
ON THE OPPOSITION BETWEEN MORALITY AND POLITICS WITH RESPECT TO PERPETUAL PEACE

Taken objectively, morality is in itself practical, being the totality of unconditionally mandatory laws according to which we ought to act. It would obviously be absurd, after granting authority to the concept of duty, to pretend that we cannot do our duty, for in that case this concept would itself drop out of morality (ultra posse nemo obligatur). Consequently, there can be no conflict of politics, as a practical doctrine of right, with ethics, as a theoretical doctrine of right. That is to say, there is no conflict of practice with theory, unless by ethics we mean a general doctrine of prudence, which would be the same as a theory of the maxims for choosing the most fitting means to accomplish the purposes of self-interest. But to give this meaning to ethics is equivalent to denying that there is any such thing at all.
Politics says, "Be ye wise as serpents"; morality adds, as a limiting condition, "and guileless as doves." If these two injunctions are incompatible in a single command, then politics and morality are really in conflict; but if these two qualities ought always to be united, the thought of contrariety is absurd, and the question as to how the conflict between morals and politics is to be resolved cannot even be posed as a problem. Although the proposition, "Honesty is the best policy," implies a theory which practice unfortunately often refutes, the equally theoretical "Honesty is better than any policy" is beyond refutation and is indeed the indispensable condition of policy.
The tutelary divinity of morality yields not to Jupiter, for this tutelary divinity of force still is subject to destiny. That is, reason is not yet sufficiently enlightened to survey the entire series of predetermining causes, and such vision would be necessary for one to be able to foresee with certainty the happy or unhappy effects which follow human actions by the mechanism of nature (though we know enough to have hope that they will accord with our wishes). But what we have to do in order to remain in the path of duty (according to rules of wisdom) reason instructs us by her rules, and her teaching suffices for attaining the ultimate end.
Now the practical man, to whom morality is mere theory even though he concedes that it can and should be followed, ruthlessly renounces our fond hope [that it will be followed]. He does so because he pretends to have seen in advance that man, by his nature, will never will what is required for realizing the goal of perpetual peace. Certainly the will of each individual to live under a juridical constitution according to principles of freedom (i.e., the distributive unity of the will of all) is not sufficient to this end. That all together should will this condition (i.e., the collective unity of the united will)--the solution to this troublous problem--is also required. Thus a whole of civil society is formed. But since a uniting cause must supervene upon the variety of particular volitions in order to produce a common will from them, establishing this whole is something no one individual in the group can perform; hence in the practical execution of this idea we can count on nothing but force to establish the juridical condition, on the compulsion of which public law will later be established. We can scarcely hope to find in the legislator a moral intention sufficient to induce him to commit to the general will the establishment of a legal constitution after he has formed the nation from a horde of savages; therefore, we cannot but expect (in practice) to find in execution wide deviations from this idea (in theory).
It will then be said that he who once has power in his hands will not allow the people to prescribe laws for him; a state which once is able to stand under no external laws will not submit to the decision of other states how it should seek its rights against them; and one continent, which feels itself superior to another, even though the other does not interfere with it, will not neglect to increase its power by robbery or even conquest. Thus all theoretical plans of civil and international laws and laws of world citizenship vanish into empty and impractical ideas, while practice based on empirical principles of human nature, not blushing to draw its maxims from the usages of the world, can alone hope to find a sure ground for its political edifice.
If there is no freedom and no morality based on freedom, and everything which occurs or can occur happens by the mere mechanism of nature certainly politics (which is the art of using this mechanism for ruling men) is the whole of practical wisdom, and the concept of right is an empty thought. But if we find it necessary to connect the latter with politics, and even to raise it to a limiting condition thereon, the possibility of their being united must be conceded. I can easily conceive of a moral politician, i.e., one who so chooses political principles that they are consistent with those of morality; but I cannot conceive of a political moralist, one who forges a morality in such a way that it conforms to the statesman's advantage.
When a remediable defect is found in the constitution of the state or in its relations to others, the principle of the moral politician will be that it is a duty, especially of the rulers of the state, to inquire how it can be remedied as soon as possible in a way conforming to natural law as a model presented by reason; this he will do even if it costs self-sacrifice. But it would be absurd to demand that every defect be immediately and impetuously changed, since the disruption of the bonds of a civil society or a union of world citizens before a better constitution is ready to take its place is against all politics agreeing with morality. But it can be demanded that at least the maxim of the necessity of such a change should be taken to heart by those in power, so that they may continuously approach the goal of the constitution that is best under laws of right. A state may exercise a republican rule, even though by its present constitution it has a despotic sovereignty, until gradually the people becomes susceptible to the influence simply of the idea of the authority of law (as if it possessed physical power) and thus is found fit to be its own legislator (as its own legislation is originally established on law). If a violent revolution, engendered by a bad constitution, introduces by illegal means a more legal constitution, to lead the people back to the earlier constitution would not be permitted; but, while the revolution lasted, each person who openly or covertly shared in it would have justly incurred the punishment due to those who rebel. As to the external relations of states, a state cannot be expected to renounce its constitution even though it is a despotic one (which has the advantage of being stronger in relation to foreign enemies) so long as it is exposed to the danger of being swallowed up by other states. Thus even in the case of the intention to improve the constitution, postponement to a more propitious time may be permitted.1
It may be that despotizing moralists, in practice blundering, often violate rules of political prudence through measures they adopt or propose too precipitately; but experience will gradually retrieve them from their infringement of nature and lead them on to a better course. But the moralizing politician, by glossing over principles of politics which are opposed to the right with the pretext that human nature is not capable of the good as reason prescribes it, only makes reform impossible and perpetuates the violation of law.
Instead of possessing the practical science they boast of, these politicians have only practices; they flatter the power which is then ruling so as not to be remiss in their private advantage, and they sacrifice the nation and, possibly, the whole world. This is the way of all professional lawyers (not legislators) when they go into politics. Their task is not to reason too nicely about the legislation but to execute the momentary commands on the statute books; consequently, the legal constitution in force at any time is to them the best, but when it is amended from above, this amendment always seems best, too. Thus everything is preserved in its accustomed mechanical order. Their adroitness in fitting into all -circumstances gives them the illusion of being able to judge constitutional principles according to concepts of right (not empirically, but a priori). They make a great show of understanding men (which is certainly something to be expected of them, since they have to deal with so many) without understanding man and what can be made of him, for they lack the higher point of view of anthropological observation which is needed for this. If with these ideas they go into civil and international law, as reason prescribes it, they take this step in a spirit of chicanery, for they still follow their accustomed mechanical routine of despotically imposed coercive laws in a field where only concepts of reason can establish a legal compulsion according to the principles of freedom, under which alone a just and durable constitution is possible. In this field the pretended practical man thinks he can solve the problem of establishing such a constitution without the rational idea but solely from the experience he has had with what was previously the most lasting constitutions constitution which in many cases was opposed to the right.
The maxims which he makes use of (though he does not divulge them) are, roughly speaking, the following sophisms:
1. Fac et excusa. Seize every favorable opportunity for usurping the right of the state over its own people or over a neighboring people; the justification will be easier and more elegant ex post facto, and the power can be more easily glossed over, especially when the supreme power in the state is also the legislative authority which must be obeyed without argument. It is much more difficult to do the violence when one has first to wait upon the consideration of convincing arguments and to meet them with counterarguments. Boldness itself gives the appearance of inner conviction of the legitimacy of the deed, and the god of success is afterward the best advocate.
2. Si fecisti, nega. What you have committed, deny that it was your fault--for instance, that you have brought your people to despair and hence to rebellion. Rather assert that it was due to the obstinacy of your subjects; or, if you have conquered a neighboring nation, say that the fault lies in the nature of man, who, if not met by force, can be counted on to make use of it to conquer you.
3. Divide et impera. That is, if there are certain privileged persons in your nation who have chosen you as their chief (primus inter pares), set them at variance with one another and embroil them with the people. Show the latter visions of greater freedom, and all will soon depend on your untrammeled will. Or if it is foreign states that concern you, it is a pretty safe means to sow discord among them so that, by seeming to protect the weaker, you can conquer them one after another.
Certainly no one is now the dupe of these political maxims, for they are already universally known. Nor are they blushed at, as if their injustice were too glaring, for great powers blush only at the judgment of other great powers but not at that of the common masses. it is not that they are ashamed of revealing such principles (for all of them are in the same boat with respect to the morality of their maxims); they are ashamed only when these maxims fail, for they still have political honor which cannot be disputed--and this honor is the aggrandizement of their power by whatever means.2
All these twistings and turnings of an immoral doctrine of prudence in leading men from their natural state of war to a state of peace prove at least that men in both their private and their public relationships cannot reject the concept of right or trust themselves openly to establish politics merely on the artifices of prudence. Thus they do not refuse obedience to the concept of public law, which is especially manifest in international law; on the contrary, they give all due honor to it, even when they are inventing a hundred pretenses and subterfuges to escape from it in practice, imputing its authority, as the source and union of all laws, to crafty force.
Let us put an end to this sophism, if not to the injustice it protects, and force the false representatives of power to confess that they do not plead in favor of the right but in favor of might. This is revealed in the imperious tone they assume as if they themselves could command the right. Let us remove the delusion by which they and others are duped, and discover the supreme principle from which the intention to perpetual peace stems. Let us show that everything evil which stands in its way derives from the fact that the political moralist begins where the moral politician would correctly leave off, and that, since he thus subordinates principles to the end (putting the cart before the horse), he vitiates his own purpose of bringing politics into agreement with morality.
To make practical philosophy self-consistent, it is necessary, first, to decide the question: In problems of practical reason, must we begin from its material principles, i.e., the end as the object of choice? Or should we begin from the formal principles of pure reason, i.e., from the principle which is concerned solely with freedom in outer relations and which reads, "So act that you can will that your maxim could become a universal law, regardless of the end"?
Without doubt it is the latter which has precedence, for as a principle of law it has unconditional necessity. On the other hand, the former is obligatory only if we presuppose the empirical conditions of the proposed end, i.e., its practicability. Thus if this end (in this case, perpetual peace) is a duty, it must be derived from the formal principle of the maxims of external actions. The first principle, that of the political moralist, pertaining to civil and international law and the law of world citizenship, is merely a problem of technique (problema technicum); the second, as the problem of the moral politician to whom it is an ethical problem (problema morale), is far removed from the other in its method of leading toward perpetual peace, which is wished not merely as a material good but also as a condition issuing from an acknowledgment of duty.
For the solution of the former, the problem of political prudence, much knowledge of nature is required so that its mechanism may be employed toward the desired end; yet all this is uncertain in its results for perpetual peace, with whatever sphere of public law we,are concerned. It is uncertain, for example, whether the people are better kept in obedience and maintained in prosperity by severity or by the charm of distinctions which flatter their vanity, by the power of one or the union of various chiefs, or perhaps merely by a serving nobility or by the power of the people. History furnishes us with contradictory examples from all governments (with the exception of the truly republican, which can alone appeal to the mind of a moral politician). Still more uncertain is an international law allegedly erected on the statutes of ministries. It is, in fact, a word without meaning, resting as it does on compacts which, in the very act of being concluded, contain secret reservations for their violation.
On the other hand, the solution of the second problem, that of political wisdom, presses itself upon us, as it were; it is clear to everyone and puts to shame all affectation. It leads directly to the end, but, remembering discretion, it does not precipitately hasten to do so by force; rather, it continuously approaches it under the conditions offered by favorable circumstances.
Then it may be said, "Seek ye first the kingdom of pure practical reason and its righteousness, and your end (the blessing of perpetual peace) will necessarily follow." For it is the peculiarity of morals, especially with respect to its principles of public law and hence in relation to a politics known a priori, that the less it makes conduct depend on the proposed end, i.e., the intended material or moral advantage, the more it agrees with it in general. This is because it is the universal will given a priori (in a nation or in the relations among different nations) which determines the law among men, and if practice consistently follows it, this will can also, by the mechanism of nature, cause the desired result and make the concept of law effective. So, for instance, it is a principle of moral politics that a people should unite into a state according to juridical concepts of freedom and equality, and this principle is based not on prudence but on duty. Political moralists may argue as much as they wish about the natural mechanism of a mass of men forming a society, assuming a mechanism which would weaken those principles and vitiate their end; or they may seek to prove their assertions by examples of poorly organized constitutions of ancient and modern times (for instance, of democracies without representative systems). They deserve no hearing, particularly as such a pernicious theory may itself occasion the evil which it prophesies, throwing human beings into one class with all other living machines, differing from them only in their consciousness that they are not free, which makes them, in their own judgment, the most miserable of all beings in the world.
The true but somewhat boastful sentence which has become proverbial, Fiat iustitia, pereat mundus ("Let justice reign even if all the rascals in the world should perish from it"), is a stout principle of right which cuts asunder the whole tissue of artifice or force. But it should not be misunderstood as a permission to use one's own right with extreme rigor (which would conflict with ethical duty); it should be understood as the obligation of those in power not to limit or to extend anyone's right through sympathy or disfavor. This requires, first, an internal constitution of the state erected on pure principles of right, and, second, a convention of the state with other near or distant states (analogous to a universal state) for the legal settlement of their differences. This implies only that political maxims must not be derived from the welfare or happiness which a single state expects from obedience to them, and thus not from the end which one of them proposes for itself. That is, they must not be deduced from volition as the supreme yet empirical principle of political wisdom, but rather from the pure concept of the duty of right, from the ought whose principle is given a priori by pure reason, regardless of what the physical consequences may be. The world will by no means perish by a diminution in the number of evil men. Moral evil has the indiscerptible property of being opposed to and destructive of its own purposes (especially in the relationships between evil men); thus it gives place to the moral principle of the good, though only through a slow progress.
Thus objectively, or in theory, there is no conflict between morals and politics. Subjectively, however, in the selfish propensity of men (which should not be called "practice," as this would imply that it rested on rational maxims), this conflict will always remain. Indeed, it should remain, because it serves as a whetstone of virtue, whose true courage (by the principle, tu ne cede malis, sed contra audentior ito [Yield not to evil, but go against the stronger" (Aeneid VI. 95).]) in the present case does not so much consist in defying with strong resolve evils and sacrifices which must be undertaken along with the conflict, but rather in detecting and conquering the crafty and far more dangerously deceitful and treasonable principle of evil in ourselves, which puts forward the weakness of human nature as justification for every transgression.
In fact, the political moralist may say: The ruler and people, or nation and nation, do each other no injustice when by violence or fraud they make war on each other, although they do commit injustice in general in that they refuse to respect the concept of right, which alone could establish perpetual peace. For since the one does transgress his duty against the other, who is likewise lawlessly disposed toward him, each gets what he deserves when they destroy each other. But enough of the race still remains to let this game continue into the remotest ages in order that posterity, some day, might take these perpetrators as a warning example. Hence providence is justified in the history of the world, for the moral principle in man is never extinguished, while with advancing civilization reason grows pragmatically in its capacity to realize ideas of law. But at the same time the culpability for the transgressions also grows. If we assume that humanity never will or can be improved, the only thing which a theodicy seems unable to justify is creation itself, the fact that a race of such corrupt beings ever was on earth. But the point of view necessary for such an assumption is far too high for us, and we cannot theoretically support our philosophical concepts of the supreme power which is inscrutable to us.
To such dubious consequences we are inevitably driven if we do not assume that pure principles of right have objective reality, i.e., that they may be applied, and that the people in a state and, further, states themselves in their mutual relations should act according to them, whatever objections empirical politics may raise. Thus true politics can never take a step without rendering homage to morality. Though politics by itself is a difficult art, its union with morality is no art at all, for this union cuts the knot which politics could not untie when they were in conflict. The rights of men must be held sacred, however much sacrifice it may cost the ruling power. One cannot compromise here and seek the middle course of a pragmatic conditional law between the morally right and the expedient. All politics must bend its knee before the right. But by this it can hope slowly to reach the stage where it will shine with an immortal glory.

FOOTNOTES TO APPENDIX I
1. These are permissive laws of reason. Public law laden with injustice must be allowed to stand, either until everything is of itself ripe for complete reform or until this maturity has been brought about by peaceable means; for a legal constitution, even though it be right to only a low degree, is better than none at all, the anarchic condition which would result from precipitate reform. Political wisdom, therefore, will make it a duty to introduce reforms which accord with the ideal of public law. But even when nature herself produces revolutions, political wisdom will not employ them to legitimize still greater oppression. On the contrary, it will use them as a call of nature for fundamental reforms to produce a lawful constitution founded upon principles of freedom, for only such a constitution is durable.
2. Even if we doubt a certain wickedness in the nature of men who live together in a state, and instead plausibly cite lack of civilization, which is not yet sufficiently advanced, i.e., regard barbarism as the cause of those antilawful manifestations of their character, this viciousness is clearly and incontestably shown in the foreign relations of states. Within each state it is veiled by the compulsion of civil laws, because the inclination to violence between the citizens is fettered by the stronger power of the government. This relationship not only gives a moral veneer (causae non causae) to the whole but actually facilitates the development of the moral disposition to a direct respect for the law by placing a barrier against the outbreak of unlawful inclinations. Each person believes that he himself would hold the concept of law sacred and faithfully follow it provided he were sure that he could expect the same from others, and the government does in part assure him of this. Thereby a great step (though not yet a moral step) is taken toward morality, which is attachment to this concept of duty for its own sake and without regard to hope of a similar response from others. But since each one with his own good opinion of himself presupposes a malicious disposition on the part of all the others, they all pronounce the judgment that they in fact are all worth very little. We shall not discuss how this comes about, though it cannot be blamed on the nature of man as a free being. But since even respect for the concept of right (which man cannot absolutely refuse to respect) solemnly sanctions the theory that he has the capacity of conforming to it, everyone sees that he, for his part, must act according to it, however others may act.

APPENDIX II
OF THE HARMONY WHICH THE TRANSCENDENTAL CONCEPT OF PUBLIC RIGHT ESTABLISHES BETWEEN MORALITY AND POLITICS

If, like the teacher of law, I abstract from all the material of public law (i.e., abstract from the various empirically given relationships of men in the state or of states to each other), there remains only the form of publicity, the possibility of which is implied by every legal claim, since without it there can be no justice (which can only be conceived as publicly known) and thus no right, since it can be conferred only in accordance with justice. Every legal claim must be capable of publicity. Since it is easy to judge whether it is so in a particular case, i.e., whether it can be compatible with the principles of the agent, this gives an easily applied criterion found a priori in reason, by which the falsity (opposition to law) of the pretended claim (praetensio iuris) can, as it were, be immediately known by an experiment of pure reason.
Having set aside everything empirical in the concept of civil or international law (such as the wickedness in human nature which necessitates coercion), we can call the following proposition the transcendental formula of public law: "All actions relating to the right of other men are unjust if their maxim is not consistent with publicity."
This principle is to be regarded not merely as ethical (as belonging to the doctrine of virtue) but also as juridical (concerning the right of man). A maxim which I cannot divulge without defeating my own purpose must be kept secret if it is to succeed; and, if I cannot publicly avow it Without inevitably exciting universal opposition to my project, the necessary and universal opposition which can be foreseen a priori is due only to the injustice with which the maxim threatens everyone. This principle is, furthermore, only negative, i.e., it only serves for the recognition of what is not just to others. Like an axiom, it is indemonstrably certain and, as will be seen in the following examples of public law, easily applied.
1. In the law of the state (ius civitatis) or domestic law, there is a question which many hold to be difficult to answer, yet it is easily solved by the transcendental principle of publicity. The question is: "Is rebellion a legitimate means for a people to employ in throwing off the yoke of an alleged tyrant (non titulo, sed exercitio talis)?" The rights of the people are injured; no injustice befalls the tyrant when he is deposed. There can be no doubt on this point. Nevertheless, it is in the highest degree illegitimate for the subjects to seek their rights in this way. If they fail in the struggle and are then subjected to severest punishment, they cannot complain about injustice any more than the tyrant could if they had succeeded.
If one wishes to decide this question by a dogmatic deduction of legal grounds, there can be much arguing pro and con; only the transcendental principle of the publicity of public law can free us of this prolixity. According to this principle, a people would ask itself before the establishment of the civil contract whether it dare publish the maxim of its intention to revolt on occasion. It is clear that if, in the establishment of a constitution, the condition is made that the people may in certain cases employ force against its chief, the people would have to pretend to a legitimate power over him, and then he would not be the chief. Or if both are made the condition of the establishment of the state, no state would be possible, though to establish it was the purpose of the people. The illegitimacy of rebellion is thus clear from the fact that its maxim, if openly acknowledged, would make its own purpose impossible. Therefore, it would have to be kept secret.
This secrecy, however, is not incumbent upon the chief of the state. He can openly say that he will punish every rebellion with the death of the ringleaders, however much they may believe that he was the first to overstep the basic law; for when he knows he possesses irresistible power (which must be assumed to be the case in every civil constitution, because he who does not have enough power to protect the people against every other also does not have the right to command them), he need not fear vitiating his own purpose by publishing his maxims. If the revolt of the people succeeds, what has been said is still quite compatible with the fact that the chief, on retiring to the status of a subject, cannot begin a revolt for his restoration but need not fear being made to account for his earlier administration of the state.
2. We can speak of international law only under the presupposition of some law-governed condition, i.e., of the external condition under which right can really be awarded to man. For, being a public law, it contains in its very concept the public announcement of a general will which assigns to each his rights, and this status iuridicus must result from some compact which is not founded on laws of compulsion 'as in the case of the compact from which a single state arises). Rather, it must be founded on a free and enduring association, like the previously mentioned federation of states. For without there being some juridical condition, which actively binds together the different physical or moral persons, there can be only private law; this is the situation met with in the state of nature. Now here there is a conflict of politics with morality (regarding the latter as a science of right), and the criterion of publicity again finds an easy application in resolving it, though only if the compact between the states has been made with the purpose of preserving peace between them and other states, and not for conquest. The following cases of the antinomy between politics and morality occur (and they are stated with their solution).
a) "If one of these states has promised something to the other, such as aid, cession of some province, subsidies, and the like, and a case arises where the salvation of the state depends upon its being relieved of its promise, can it then consider itself in two roles: first as a sovereign (as it is responsible to no one in the state), and second as merely the highest official (who must give an account to the state)? From this dual capacity it would follow that in its latter role the state can relieve itself of what it has obliged itself to do in its former role." But if a state (or its chief) publicizes this maxim, others would naturally avoid entering an alliance with it, or ally themselves with others so as to resist such pretensions. This proves that politics with all its cunning would defeat its purpose by candor; therefore, that maxim must be illegitimate.
b) "If a neighboring power becomes formidable by its acquisitions (potentia tremenda), and thus causes anxiety, can one assume because it can oppress that it will? And does this give the lesser power, in union with others, a right to attack it without having.first been injured by it?" A state which made known that such was its maxim would produce the feared evil even more certainly and quickly, for the greater power would steal a march on the smaller. And the alliance of the smaller powers would be only a feeble reed against one who knew how to apply the maxim divide et impera. This maxim of political expediency, if made public, would necessarily defeat its own purpose, and hence it is illegitimate.
c) "If a smaller state is so situated as to break up the territory of a larger one, and continuous territory is necessary to the preservation of the larger, is the latter not justified in subjugating the smaller and incorporating it?" We easily see that the greater power cannot afford to let this maxim become known; otherwise the smaller states would very early unite, or other powers would dispute the prey, and thus publicity would render this maxim impracticable. This is a sign that it is illegitimate. It may be unjust to a very high degree, for a small object of injustice does not prevent the injustice from being very great.
3. I say nothing about the law of world citizenship, for its analogy with international law makes it a very simple matter to state and evaluate its maxims.
Thus in the principle of incompatibility between the maxims of international law and publicity we have a good distinguishing mark for recognizing the nonconformity of politics to morality (as a, science of right). Now we need to know the condition under which these maxims, agree with the law of nations, for we cannot infer conversely that the maxims which bear publicity are therefore just, since no one who has decidedly superior power needs to conceal his plans. The condition of the possibility of international law in general is this: a juridical condition must first exist. For without this there is no public law, since all law which one may think of outside of this, in the state of nature, is merely private law. We have seen that a federation of states which has for its sole purpose the maintenance of peace is the only juridical condition compatible with the freedom of the several states. Therefore the harmony of politics with morals is possible only in a federative alliance, and the latter is necessary and given a priori by the principle of right. Furthermore, all politics has for its juridical basis the establishment of this harmony to its greatest possible extent, and without this end all its sophisms are but folly and veiled injustice. This false politics outdoes the best Jesuit school in casuistry. It has reservatio mentalis, wording public compacts with such expressions as can on occasion be interpreted to one's own advantage (for example, it makes the distinction between status quo de fait and de droit). It has probabilism, attributing hostile intentions to others, or even making probabilities of their possible superior power into legal grounds for destroying other, peaceful states. Finally, it has the peccatum philosophicum (peccatillum, bagatelle), holding it to be only a trifle when a small state is swallowed up in order that a much larger one may thereby approach more nearly to an alleged greater good for the world as a whole. 1
The duplicity of politics in respect to morality, in using first one branch of it and then the other for its purposes, furthers these sophistic maxims. These branches are philanthropy and respect for the rights of men; and both are duty. The former is a conditional duty, while the latter is an unconditional and absolutely mandatory duty. One who wishes to give himself up to the sweet feeling of benevolence must make sure that he has not transgressed this absolute duty. Politics readily agrees with morality in its first branch (as ethics) in order to surrender the rights of men to their superiors. But with morality in the second branch (as a science of right), to which it must bend its knee, politics finds it advisable not to have any dealings, and rather denies it all reality, preferring to educe all duties to mere benevolence. This artifice of a secretive politics would soon be unmasked by philosophy through publication of its maxims, if they only dared to allow the philosopher to publish his maxims.
In this regard I propose another affirmative and transcendental principle of public law, the formula of which is:
"All maxims which stand in need of publicity in order not to fail their end, agree with politics and right combined."
For if they can attain their end only through publicity, they must accord with the public's universal end, happiness; and the proper task of politics is,to promote this, i.e., to make the public satisfied with its condition. If, however, this end is attainable only by means of publicity, i.e., by removing all distrust in the maxims of politics, the latter must conform to the rights of the public, for only in this is the union of the goals of all possible.
The further development and discussion of this principle I must postpone to another occasion. But that it is a transcendental formula is to be seen from the exclusion of all empirical conditions (of the doctrine of happiness) as material of the law, and from the reference it makes to the form of universal lawfulness.
If it is a duty to make real (even if only through approximation in endless progress) the state of public law, and if there is well-grounded hope that this can actually be done, then perpetual peace, as the condition that will follow what has erroneously been called "treaties of peace" (but which in reality are only armistices), is not an empty idea. As the times required for equal steps of progress become, we hope, shorter and shorter, perpetual peace is a problem which, gradually working out its own solution, steadily approaches its goal.

FOOTNOTES TO APPENDIX II
1. The precedents for such maxims may be seen in Counselor Garve's treatise, On the Union of Morality with Politics (1788). This worthy scholar admits in the beginning that he is not able to solve the problem completely. But to approve of this union while admitting that one cannot meet all objections which may be raised against it seems to show more tolerance than is,,advisable toward those who are inclined to abuse it.

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